12 NCERT CBSE Sociology Indian Society Social Institutions in India: Caste, Tribe, and Family
Theme Analysis
Main ThemeSocial Institutions in India: Caste, Tribe, and Family
Subject CategorySociology
Key Concepts
Question FocusQuestions focus on conceptual understanding, historical evolution, and contemporary relevance of caste, tribe, and family in India. Emphasis is placed on definitions, distinguishing features, impacts of colonialism and modernity, and the dynamics of identity formation. A mix of Bloom's taxonomy levels is used, from recall to analysis and application, suitable for high school students.
The English word 'caste' is derived from which language and what does it literally mean?
Hint: Think about the origin of the word 'caste' as mentioned in the historical context.
Answer
The English word 'caste' is a borrowing from the Portuguese word 'casta', which means 'pure breed'.
Explanation
The text explicitly states that 'the English word ‘caste’ is actually a borrowing from the Portuguese casta, meaning pure breed.' This directly answers the question.
What is the generally accepted relationship between 'varna' and 'jati' in the Indian caste system?
Hint: Recall how these two terms relate to the scope and specificity of caste divisions.
Answer
Varna is interpreted as a broad all-India aggregative classification, while jati is a regional or local sub-classification.
Explanation
The text explains, 'The most common interpretation is to treat varna as a broad all-India aggregative classification, while jati is taken to be a regional or local sub-classification involving a much more complex system consisting of hundreds or even thousands of castes and sub-castes.'
Which of the following categories is NOT part of the traditional four-fold varna division mentioned in the text?
Hint: Remember the four main categories of varna and what other group was mentioned as being outside of it.
Answer
Panchamas, or the fifth category, are explicitly stated as being excluded from the four-fold varna division.
Explanation
The text states that varna is a 'four-fold division of society into brahmana, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra, though this excludes a significant section of the population composed of the ‘outcastes’, foreigners, slaves, conquered peoples and others, sometimes refered to as the panchamas or fifth category.' Therefore, Panchamas are not part of the four-fold division but rather excluded from it.
How did the caste system in the late Vedic period (900-500 BC) differ from its post-Vedic form?
Hint: Consider the characteristics of the caste system in its earliest phase.
Answer
In the late Vedic period, the caste system was less rigid, not determined by birth, and allowed for movement across categories.
Explanation
The text explains, 'In its earliest phase, in the late Vedic period roughly between 900 — 500 BC, the caste system was really a varna system and consisted of only four major divisions. These divisions were not very elaborate or very rigid, and they were not determined by birth. Movement across the categories seems to have been not only possible but quite common.' It was only in the post-Vedic period that it became rigid.
Which of the following is a commonly cited defining feature of caste, as per the text?
Hint: Review the list of defining features of caste provided in the document.
Answer
Caste membership involves strict rules about food and food-sharing, including what kinds of food may or may not be eaten and who one may share food with.
Explanation
The text lists six defining features of caste. Point 3 explicitly states: 'Caste membership also involves rules about food and food-sharing. What kinds of food may or may not be eaten is prescribed and who one may share food with is also speci fi ed.' Options A, B, and D contradict other listed features.
Theoretically, the caste system combines two sets of principles. What are they?
Hint: Recall the two main theoretical principles that underpin the caste system's structure.
Answer
The caste system theoretically combines principles of difference and separation with principles of wholism and hierarchy.
Explanation
The text states, 'Theoretically, the caste system can be understood as the combination of two sets of principles, one based on difference and separation and the other on wholism and hierarchy.'
What is the primary basis for the hierarchical ordering of castes, as described in the text?
Hint: Consider the ritualistic aspect that determines status within the caste system.
Answer
The hierarchical ordering of castes is primarily based on the distinction between 'purity' and 'pollution'.
Explanation
The text clearly states, 'The hierarchical ordering of castes is based on the distinction between ‘purity’ and ‘pollution’. This is a division between something believed to be closer to the sacred (thus connoting ritual purity), and something believed to be distant from or opposed to the sacred, therefore considered ritually polluting.' While material power is associated with social status, purity/pollution is the foundational basis.
Which official effort by the British Indian government was most important in collecting information on caste and significantly impacted its social perceptions?
Hint: Recall the large-scale, systematic data collection method used by the British.
Answer
The most important official effort to collect information on caste was through the regular ten-yearly census, particularly from 1881 onwards.
Explanation
The text states, 'But by far the most important official effort to collect information on caste was through the census. First begun in the 1860s, the census became a regular ten-yearly exercise conducted by the British Indian government from 1881 onwards.' It also notes the 1901 Census under Herbert Risley had a huge impact on social perceptions.
How did the British colonial census, particularly the 1901 Census under Herbert Risley, impact caste identities?
Hint: Consider the effect of official documentation and categorization on previously less formal social divisions.
Answer
The colonial census solidified caste identities by officially counting and recording caste status, which led to numerous petitions from castes claiming higher positions.
Explanation
The text explains, 'Overall, scholars feel that this kind of direct attempt to count caste and to officially record caste status changed the institution itself. Before this kind of intervention, caste identities had been much more fluid and less rigid; once they began to be counted and recorded, caste began to take on a new life.' It also mentions 'hundreds of petitions were addressed to the Census Commissioner by representatives of different castes claiming a higher position in the social scale'.
The terms 'Scheduled Tribes' and 'Scheduled Castes' came into being as a result of which historical legislation?
Hint: Look for the specific legislation mentioned in the context of colonial welfare efforts for downtrodden castes.
Answer
The terms 'Scheduled Tribes' and 'Scheduled Castes' originated from the Government of India Act of 1935.
Explanation
The text states, 'It was as part of these efforts that the Government of India Act of 1935 was passed which gave legal recognition to the lists or ‘schedules’ of castes and tribes marked out for special treatment by the state. This is how the terms ‘Scheduled Tribes’ and the ‘Scheduled Castes’ came into being.'
How did the post-Independence Indian state's approach to caste exhibit contradictions?
Hint: Consider the state's stated goals versus its practical actions and limitations regarding caste.
Answer
The state was committed to abolishing caste (written into the Constitution) but was unable and unwilling to push through radical reforms that would undermine the economic basis of caste inequality.
Explanation
The text explains, 'The post-Independence Indian state inherited and reflected these contradictions. On the one hand, the state was committed to the abolition of caste and explicitly wrote this into the Constitution. On the other hand, the state was both unable and unwilling to push through radical reforms which would have undermined the economic basis for caste inequality.'
The text suggests that the state's 'caste-blind' approach to government job appointments, with the exception of reservations, paradoxically benefited which group?
Hint: Think about which group would naturally have an advantage in a system that assumes equal starting points without addressing historical disparities.
Answer
The 'caste-blind' approach benefited the well-educated upper castes because they were better positioned to compete on 'equal' terms.
Explanation
The text states, 'At yet another level, the state assumed that if it operated in a caste-blind manner, this would automatically lead to the undermining of caste based privileges and the eventual abolition of the institution. For example, appointments to government jobs took no account of caste, thus leaving the well-educated upper castes and the ill-educated or often illiterate lower castes to compete on “equal” terms.' This implies the well-educated upper castes had an inherent advantage.
In which sphere has caste proved to be strongest and largely unaffected by modernization and change?
Hint: Consider aspects of personal life and tradition that are resistant to broader societal changes.
Answer
Caste has proved strongest in the cultural and domestic spheres, especially concerning endogamy (marriage within the caste).
Explanation
The text notes, 'Not surprisingly, it was in the cultural and domestic spheres that caste has proved strongest. Endogamy, or the practice of marrying within the caste, remained largely unaffected by modernisation and change. Even today, most marriages take place within caste boundaries, although there are more intercaste marriages.'
What does 'Sanskritisation', a concept contributed by M.N. Srinivas, refer to?
Hint: Think about how lower castes might traditionally attempt to improve their social standing within the caste hierarchy.
Answer
Sanskritisation refers to the process where members of a lower caste adopt the practices of a higher caste to improve their social status.
Explanation
The text defines it: '‘Sanskritisation’ refers to a process whereby members of a (usually middle or lower) caste attempt to raise their own social status by adopting the ritual, domestic and social practices of a caste (or castes) of higher status.'
According to the text, what characteristics define a 'dominant caste' in post-Independence rural India?
Hint: Consider the factors that led to certain intermediate castes gaining power in the countryside after land reforms.
Answer
Dominant castes typically have a large population, were granted land rights after land reforms, and consequently acquired significant economic and political power.
Explanation
The text explains, '‘Dominant caste’ is a term used to refer to those castes which had a large population and were granted landrights by the partial land reforms effected after Independence. ... However, once they got land rights, they acquired considerable economic power. Their large numbers also gave them political power in the era of electoral democracy based on universal adult franchise.'
Why has caste tended to become 'invisible' for the upper caste, urban middle and upper classes in contemporary India?
Hint: Consider how historical advantages and access to opportunities might shape perception of one's current success.
Answer
For these groups, caste became 'invisible' because their caste status had been instrumental in providing access to resources, allowing them to benefit from development and attribute their success to merit alone.
Explanation
The text states, 'For these groups, who have benefited the most from the developmental policies of the post-colonial era, caste has appeared to decline in significance precisely because it has done its job so well. Their caste status had been crucial in ensuring that these groups had the necessary economic and educational resources to take full advantage of the opportunities offered by rapid development.' This led them to believe their advancement had little to do with caste.
In terms of what they were NOT, how were tribes in India generally defined?
Hint: Recall the characteristics used to delineate tribes by exclusion.
Answer
Tribes were generally defined as communities that did not practice a religion with a written text, did not have a normal state or political form, and did not have sharp class divisions.
Explanation
The text explicitly states, 'Tribes in India have generally been defined in terms of what they were not. Tribes were communities that did not practice a religion with a written text; did not have a state or political form of the normal kind and did not have sharp class divisions.'
Which of the following is considered a 'permanent trait' used for classifying tribal societies?
Hint: Recall the categories of 'permanent' characteristics used to classify tribes.
Answer
Language is listed as one of the permanent traits for classifying tribal societies.
Explanation
The text lists 'Permanent traits include region, language, physical characteristics and ecological habitat.' Mode of livelihood and extent of incorporation are 'acquired traits'.
What are the two main criteria used for classifying tribes based on 'acquired traits'?
Hint: Consider the characteristics that tribes might adopt or develop over time through interaction.
Answer
Classifications based on acquired traits use 'mode of livelihood' and 'extent of incorporation into Hindu society' as main criteria.
Explanation
The text clearly states, 'Classifications based on acquired traits use two main criteria – mode of livelihood, and extent of incorporation into Hindu society – or a combination of the two.'
What was the central argument of those who opposed the view that tribes and caste-based societies were on a continuum?
Hint: Think about the core cultural distinction that separates the two types of communities in the debate.
Answer
Opponents argued that tribes were fundamentally different from castes due to the absence of the purity and pollution concept, which is central to the caste system.
Explanation
The text explains, 'However, opponents argued that tribes were wholly different from castes because they had no notion of purity and pollution which is central to the caste system.'
What argument do some scholars offer against the view that tribes are 'pristine' societies uncontaminated by civilization?
Hint: Consider the historical perspective that challenges the idea of tribes as untouched and original.
Answer
These scholars argue that tribes are 'secondary' phenomena, formed by exploitative and colonialist contact between pre-existing states and non-state groups.
Explanation
The text states, 'Some scholars have also argued that there is no coherent basis for treating tribes as “pristine” – i.e., original or pure – societies uncontaminated by civilisation. They propose instead that tribes should really be seen as “secondary” phenomena arising out of the exploitative and colonialist contact between pre-existing states and non-state groups like the tribals.'
According to the text, what has been a disproportionate price paid by tribal communities for 'national development' in India?
Hint: Think about the primary resources that tribal communities rely on and how large-scale development projects might affect them.
Answer
Tribal communities have paid a disproportionate price through the dispossession of their land and the loss of forests, as their areas were rich in minerals and suitable for development projects.
Explanation
The text highlights, 'Because the tribal areas were located in mineral rich and forest covered parts of the country, tribals have paid a disproportionate price for the development of the rest of Indian society. ... The process of dispossessing tribals of their land has occurred as a necessary byproduct of the exploitation of minerals and the utilisation of favourable sites for setting up hydroelectric power plants... The loss of the forests on which most tribal communities depended has been a major blow.'
In-migration of non-tribals into tribal concentration regions, as seen in Jharkhand or the North-East, primarily leads to what outcome for tribal communities?
Hint: Consider the consequences when a large number of outsiders move into an area predominantly inhabited by a specific community.
Answer
In-migration of non-tribals threatens to disrupt and overwhelm tribal communities and cultures, dilute their population share, and accelerate their exploitation.
Explanation
The text states, 'Many tribal concentration regions and states have also been experiencing the problem of heavy in-migration of non-tribals in response to the pressures of development. This threatens to disrupt and overwhelm tribal communities and cultures, besides accelerating the process of exploitation of tribals. The industrial areas of Jharkhand for example have suffered a dilution of the tribal share of population.'
What is a significant development that has contributed to the assertion of tribal identities today?
Hint: Think about how education and socio-economic changes within a community can lead to new forms of self-awareness and collective action.
Answer
The gradual emergence of an educated middle class among tribal communities is a significant development contributing to the assertion of tribal identities.
Explanation
The text explicitly mentions, 'Another significant development is the gradual emergence of an educated middle class among tribal communities. ... With the emergence of this class in particular, issues of culture, tradition, livelihood, even control over land and resources, as well as demands for a share in the benefits of the projects of modernity, have become an integral part of the articulation of identity among the tribes.'
What is the defining characteristic of a nuclear family?
Hint: Recall the simplest form of a family unit described.
Answer
A nuclear family consists of only one set of parents and their children.
Explanation
The text defines it: 'A nuclear family consists of only one set of parents and their children.'
Which statement accurately describes an extended family?
Hint: Think about the composition of a family that goes beyond a single parental unit.
Answer
An extended family, commonly known as a 'joint family', has more than one couple and often more than two generations living together.
Explanation
The text states, 'An extended family (commonly known as the ‘joint family’) can take different forms, but has more than one couple, and often more than two generations, living together.' It also notes that 'joint family' is not a native category.
In a patrilocal society, where does the newly married couple reside?
Hint: Recall the meaning of 'patrilocal' in terms of residence after marriage.
Answer
In a patrilocal society, the newly married couple lives with the man's parents.
Explanation
The text defines 'patrilocal' as the case where 'the couple lives with the man’s parents.' It contrasts this with 'matrilocal' where the couple stays with the woman's parents.
What is the key difference between a matrilineal and a patrilineal society regarding inheritance?
Hint: Focus on the direction of inheritance (mother-daughter vs. father-son) for these terms.
Answer
In matrilineal societies, property is passed from mother to daughter, whereas in patrilineal societies, it is passed from father to son.
Explanation
The text states, 'With regard to the rules of inheritance, matrilineal societies pass on property from mother to daughter while patrilineal societies do so from father to son.'
The text distinguishes between matriarchy and matrilineal societies. What is the crucial difference highlighted?
Hint: Consider the distinction between inheritance patterns and the exercise of power/authority.
Answer
Matriarchy means women exercise dominance, which is a theoretical concept without empirical evidence. Matrilineal societies, however, exist where women inherit property from their mothers but do not necessarily exercise control or decision-making power.
Explanation
The text clarifies, 'A patriarchal family structure exists where the men exercise authority and dominance, and matriarchy where the women play a similarly dominant role. However, matriarchy – unlike patriarchy – has been a theoretical rather than an empirical concept. There is no historical or anthropological evidence of matriarchy – i.e., societies where women exercise dominance. However, there do exist matrilineal societies, i.e., societies where women inherit property from their mothers but do not exercise control over it, nor are they the decision makers in public affairs.'
Which of the following figures, mentioned in the text, was a leader of the lower castes and Dalits in Kerala, working to secure their freedom to use public roads and allow Dalit children to join schools?
Hint: Recall the specific social reformer associated with the fight for Dalit rights in Kerala.
Answer
Ayyankali, born in Kerala, was a leader of lower castes and Dalits who campaigned for their rights to use public roads and for Dalit children to attend schools.
Explanation
The text states, 'Ayyankali, born in Kerala, was a leader of the lower castes and Dalits. With his efforts, Dalits got the freedom to walk on public roads, and Dalit children were allowed to join schools.'
Who founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers Society) in 1873 to secure human rights and social justice for low-caste people?
Hint: Remember the social reformer from Maharashtra known for his work against the caste system and founding a specific society.
Answer
Jotirao Govindrao Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873.
Explanation
The text mentions, 'Jotirao Govindrao Phule denounced the injustice of the caste system and scorned its rules of purity and pollution. In 1873 he founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers Society), which was devoted to securing human rights and social justice for low-caste people.'
Who is known as a rationalist and leader of the lower caste movement in South India, advocating for equality and liberty as a birthright?
Hint: Think of the prominent South Indian leader who championed rationalism and self-respect for lower castes.
Answer
Periyar (E.V. Ramasami Naickar) is known for his rationalist views and leadership of the lower caste movement in South India.
Explanation
The text states, 'Periyar (E.V. Ramasami Naickar) is known as a rationalist and the leader of the lower caste movement in South India. He aroused people to realise that all men are equal, and that it is the birthright of every individual to enjoy liberty and equality.'
How were castes traditionally linked to occupations?
Hint: Recall the defining feature of caste related to work and lineage.
Answer
Traditionally, a person born into a caste was restricted to practicing the occupation associated with that caste, making occupations hereditary.
Explanation
The text lists 'Castes were traditionally linked to occupations. A person born into a caste could only practice the occupation associated with that caste, so that occupations were hereditary, i.e. passed on from generation to generation.'
What was the dominant view of caste within the nationalist movement as India approached Independence?
Hint: Consider how the nationalist leaders viewed caste in the context of forging a united independent India.
Answer
The dominant view was to treat caste as a social evil and a colonial strategy to divide Indians, with a broad agreement to abolish caste distinctions.
Explanation
The text states, 'The dominant view in the nationalist movement was to treat caste as a social evil and as a colonial ploy to divide Indians. But the nationalist leaders, above all, Mahatma Gandhi, were able to simultaneously work for the upliftment of the lower castes, advocate the abolition of untouchability and other caste restrictions, and, at the same time, reassure the landowning upper castes that their interests, too, would be looked after.'
Approximately what percentage of India's tribal population lives in 'middle India'?
Hint: Recall the major regional concentration of tribal populations mentioned in the document.
Answer
About 85% of the tribal population lives in 'middle India'.
Explanation
The text states, 'About 85% of the tribal population lives in ‘middle India’, a wide band stretching from Gujarat and Rajasthan in the west to West Bengal and Odisha in the east, with Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and parts of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh forming the heart of this region.'
Which two language groups are primarily spoken by tribals and account for a significant majority of speakers within those groups?
Hint: Look for the language categories that are predominantly associated with tribal communities.
Answer
The Austric and Tibeto-Burman language groups are primarily spoken by tribals, accounting for all of the first and over 80% of the second group.
Explanation
The text notes, 'The other two language groups, the Austric and Tibeto-Burman, are primarily spoken by tribals, who account for all of the first and over 80% of the second group.'
Which of the following are mentioned as some of the biggest tribes in India, with populations of at least a million strong?
Hint: Recall the specific names of tribes listed as having very large populations.
Answer
The Gonds, Bhils, and Santhals are among the biggest tribes, each numbering at least a million people.
Explanation
The text states, 'The biggest tribes are the Gonds, Bhils, Santhals, Oraons, Minas, Bodos and Mundas, all of whom are at least a million strong.'
Which mechanism is mentioned as a way through which tribes were absorbed into Hindu society throughout the ages?
Hint: Consider the historical processes of cultural and social integration between tribal and caste societies.
Answer
Mechanisms include Sanskritisation and acceptance into the Shudra fold following conquest by caste Hindus, and acculturation.
Explanation
The text discusses 'mechanisms through which tribes were absorbed into Hindu society, throughout the ages – through Sanskritisation, acceptance into the Shudra fold following conquest by caste Hindus, through acculturation and so on.'
What evidence challenges the idea that Adivasis (tribals) were always oppressed and untouched by civilization?
Hint: Think about historical examples of tribal power, influence, and economic activity mentioned in the text.
Answer
The existence of Gond kingdoms, Adivasis exercising dominance over plains people through raiding, and their role in trade (forest produce, salt, elephants) challenge the notion of them being perpetually oppressed and isolated.
Explanation
The text states, 'To begin with, adivasis were not always the oppressed groups they are now – there were several Gond kingdoms in Central India... Adivasis often exercised dominance over the plains people through their capacity to raid them, and through their services as local militias. They also occupied a special trade niche, trading forest produce, salt and elephants.'
How do policies of reservation and protective discrimination impact the identity of Scheduled Castes and Tribes today?
Hint: Consider the dual impact of affirmative action policies on identity and access to opportunities.
Answer
For Scheduled Castes and Tribes, reservations serve as lifelines, but using them tends to make their caste/tribal identity the all-important and often the only aspect of their identity that the world recognizes.
Explanation
The text notes for Scheduled Castes and Tribes, 'Because they have no inherited educational and social capital, and because they must compete with an already entrenched upper caste group, they cannot afford to abandon their caste identity for it is one of the few collective assets they have. Moreover, they continue to suffer from discrimination of various kinds. The policies of reservation and other forms of protective discrimination instituted by the state in response to political pressure serve as their lifelines. But using this lifeline tends to make their caste the all-important and often the only aspect of their identity that the world recognises.'
How can changes in other social structures, like the economy or politics, lead to changes in family structure?
Hint: Recall the examples provided in the text that illustrate how public sphere changes influence private family life.
Answer
Economic migration (e.g., men from Himalayan villages) can increase women-headed families, and modern work schedules (e.g., software industry) can lead to grandparents becoming primary caregivers, thus changing family structure.
Explanation
The text provides examples: 'Thus the migration of men from the villages of the Himalayan region can lead to an unusual proportion of women-headed families in the village. Or the work schedules of young parents in the software industry in India may lead to increasing number of grandparents moving in as care-givers to young grandchildren. The composition of the family and its structure thereby changes and these changes can be understood in relation to other changes in society.'
To which non-Hindu communities has the institution of caste spread in the Indian sub-continent?
Hint: Recall the specific religious groups mentioned as having adopted aspects of the caste system.
Answer
Caste has spread to major non-Hindu communities like Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs in the Indian sub-continent.
Explanation
The text states, 'Although it is an institution characteristic of Hindu society, caste has spread to the major non-Hindu communities of the Indian sub-continent. This is specially true of Muslims, Christians and Sikhs.'
How does the concept of castes being 'complementary and non-competing groups' relate to the social division of labour?
Hint: Consider the implications of 'non-competing' in a system where occupations are hereditary.
Answer
The idea that castes are complementary and non-competing implies that each caste has a predetermined place and occupation in the system, functioning as a rigid social division of labour with no mobility.
Explanation
The text explains, 'Finally, castes are not only unequal to each other in ritual terms, they are also supposed to be complementary and non-competing groups. In other words, each caste has its own place in the system which cannot be taken by any other caste. Since caste is also linked with occupation, the system functions as the social division of labour, except that, in principle, it allows no mobility.'
What has been the historical impact of the capitalist economy's drive on tribal societies?
Hint: Think about the economic forces that often lead to interaction and exploitation of natural resources and labor.
Answer
The capitalist economy's drive to exploit forest resources and minerals and to recruit cheap labour has brought tribal societies into contact with mainstream society a long time ago.
Explanation
The text states, 'Moreover, the capitalist economy’s drive to exploit forest resources and minerals and to recruit cheap labour has brought tribal societies in contact with mainstream society a long time ago.'
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