12 NCERT CBSE History
Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs: Devotional Texts
Bhakti-Sufi Traditions and Religious Developments in Medieval India
High School History | Comprehensive Assessment & Review Worksheet
Lesson Summary & Overview
This lesson explores the rich tapestry of religious beliefs and practices that characterized the Indian subcontinent from the eighth to the eighteenth century, focusing on the dynamic Bhakti-Sufi traditions. It delves into the evolution of diverse devotional movements, including the influential Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu, and the revolutionary Virashaiva tradition in Karnataka. Key concepts such as 'great' and 'little' traditions, the integration of local cults into Brahmanical frameworks, and the complex relationship between religious leaders and state patronage are thoroughly examined.
Furthermore, the assessment covers the advent and popular practice of Islam in India, introducing the foundational principles of Sufism, its institutional structures like khanqahs and silsilas, and the significant role of the Chishti order. Students will learn about the interactions between different religious communities, the challenges posed to established social norms, and the cultural synthesis evident in language, art, and architecture. This comprehensive review aims to solidify understanding of the spiritual, social, and political landscape shaped by these vibrant devotional movements, providing insights into their enduring legacy in Indian history and culture.
Theme Analysis & Strategy
Main ThemeReligious and Cultural Evolution in Medieval India
Subject CategoryHistory
Key Concepts
Question FocusThis assessment focuses on understanding the key religious movements (Bhakti and Sufi) and their interaction with society and the state in medieval India. Questions test recall of definitions, comprehension of processes like integration and conflict, and analysis of the social and political impact of these traditions. Emphasis is placed on identifying characteristics of major sects and figures.
By the mid-first millennium CE, the landscape of the subcontinent was dotted with a variety of religious structures. Which of the following was NOT explicitly mentioned as typifying certain religious beliefs and practices?
Hint: Consider the timeframe mentioned (mid-first millennium CE) and the religious developments discussed in the initial paragraphs.
Answer
Mosques
Explanation
The text states that by the mid-first millennium CE, the landscape was dotted with stupas, monasteries, and temples. Mosques are discussed later with the advent of Islam from the seventh century onwards.
What are hagiographies?
Hint: The text defines this term explicitly when discussing sources for historians.
Answer
Biographies of saints written by their followers
Explanation
The text states: 'Historians also draw on hagiographies or biographies of saints written by their followers (or members of their religious sect).'
Who coined the terms 'great' and 'little' traditions to describe cultural practices of peasant societies?
Hint: Look for the specific name associated with these sociological terms in the section '“Great” and “little” traditions'.
Answer
Robert Redfield
Explanation
The text explicitly states: 'The terms great and little traditions were coined by a sociologist named Robert Redfield in the twentieth century to describe the cultural practices of peasant societies.'
According to Robert Redfield, 'great traditions' primarily refer to:
Hint: Recall Redfield's definition of 'great tradition' in the context of peasant societies.
Answer
Rituals and customs emanating from dominant social categories like priests and rulers.
Explanation
Redfield 'found that peasants observed rituals and customs that emanated from dominant social categories, including priests and rulers. These he classified as part of a great tradition.'
What was one of the two processes historians suggest were at work in the integration of cults?
Hint: The text describes two main processes. One involved making certain ideas more widespread.
Answer
Disseminating Brahmanical ideas through accessible texts.
Explanation
The text states: 'One was a process of disseminating Brahmanical ideas. This is exemplified by the composition, compilation and preservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verse, explicitly meant to be accessible to women and Shudras, who were generally excluded from Vedic learning.'
At Puri, Orissa, the principal deity Jagannatha was identified as a form of which major deity by the twelfth century?
Hint: This is a specific example provided for the integration of cults.
Answer
Vishnu
Explanation
The text mentions: 'One of the most striking examples of this process is evident at Puri, Orissa, where the principal deity was identified, by the twelfth century, as Jagannatha (literally, the lord of the world), a form of Vishnu.'
Tantric practices were distinct in that they often:
Hint: Consider the social accessibility of Tantric practices.
Answer
Ignored differences of caste and class within the ritual context.
Explanation
The text states: 'Tantric practices were widespread in several parts of the subcontinent – they were open to women and men, and practitioners often ignored differences of caste and class within the ritual context.'
What was the primary difference highlighted between Vedic and Puranic traditions?
Hint: Compare the prominence of deities in each tradition as described in the text.
Answer
Principal Vedic deities became marginal in Puranic mythologies, which focused on Vishnu, Shiva, and the goddess.
Explanation
The text notes: 'The principal deities of the Vedic pantheon, Agni, Indra and Soma, become marginal figures, rarely visible in textual or visual representations. And while we can catch a glimpse of Vishnu, Shiva and the goddess in Vedic mantras, these have little in common with the elaborate Puranic mythologies.'
Bhakti traditions are often classified into two broad categories: saguna and nirguna. What does 'saguna' refer to?
Hint: The text defines both saguna and nirguna bhakti.
Answer
Traditions that focused on the worship of specific deities with attributes.
Explanation
The text states: 'saguna (with attributes) ... included traditions that focused on the worship of specific deities such as Shiva, Vishnu and his avatars (incarnations) and forms of the goddess or Devi, all often conceptualised in anthropomorphic forms.'
Who were the Alvars?
Hint: The text provides a literal meaning for 'Alvar'.
Answer
Those immersed in devotion to Vishnu.
Explanation
The text describes: 'Alvars (literally, those who are “immersed” in devotion to Vishnu) and Nayanars (literally, leaders who were devotees of Shiva).'
The Nalayira Divyaprabandham is a major anthology of compositions by which group of poet-saints?
Hint: This anthology is explicitly linked to a specific group of Tamil poet-saints.
Answer
Alvars
Explanation
The text states: 'one of the major anthologies of compositions by the Alvars, the Nalayira Divyaprabandham, was frequently described as the Tamil Veda'.
The Alvars and Nayanars sometimes initiated a movement of protest against the caste system. What evidence supports this claim?
Hint: Consider the social composition of their followers.
Answer
Bhaktas hailed from diverse social backgrounds, including 'untouchables'.
Explanation
The text states: 'To some extent this is corroborated by the fact that bhaktas hailed from diverse social backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even from castes considered “untouchable”.'
Which woman Alvar saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu and expressed her love for the deity in her verses?
Hint: There are two prominent women devotees mentioned; identify the one associated with Vishnu.
Answer
Andal
Explanation
The text specifies: 'For instance, the compositions of Andal, a woman Alvar, were widely sung (and continue to be sung to date). Andal saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu; her verses express her love for the deity.'
How did the powerful Chola rulers support Brahmanical and bhakti traditions?
Hint: Recall the Chola rulers' actions regarding religious institutions and art.
Answer
By making land grants and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva.
Explanation
The text states: 'What is evident is that the powerful Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions, making land grants and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva.'
The Virashaiva tradition in Karnataka was led by which Brahmana in the twelfth century?
Hint: The leader of the Virashaiva movement is explicitly named.
Answer
Basavanna
Explanation
The text identifies: 'The twelfth century witnessed the emergence of a new movement in Karnataka, led by a Brahmana named Basavanna (1106-68) who was a minister in the court of a Kalachuri ruler.'
Which practice did the Lingayats (Virashaivas) NOT follow, in contrast to Dharmashastras?
Hint: Consider their funerary rites and their beliefs about death and rebirth.
Answer
Cremation of the dead.
Explanation
The text states: 'Lingayats believe that on death the devotee will be united with Shiva and will not return to this world. Therefore they do not practise funerary rites such as cremation, prescribed in the Dharmashastras. Instead, they ceremonially bury their dead.'
How did the Lingayats challenge the Brahmanical social order?
Hint: Look at the specific social and theological ideas they challenged.
Answer
By questioning the idea of caste, 'pollution', and the theory of rebirth.
Explanation
The text says: 'The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution” attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas. They also questioned the theory of rebirth.'
Which group of religious leaders in North India questioned the authority of the Vedas and expressed themselves in regional languages?
Hint: These groups emerged during a period of religious ferment in North India.
Answer
Naths, Jogis, and Siddhas
Explanation
The text states: 'These included the Naths, Jogis and Siddhas... Many of these new religious leaders questioned the authority of the Vedas, and expressed themselves in languages spoken by ordinary people.'
What is the term for scholars of Islamic studies who perform various religious, juridical, and teaching functions?
Hint: This term is defined at the beginning of the 'Islamic Traditions' section.
Answer
Ulama
Explanation
The text defines: 'Ulama (plural of alim, or one who knows) are scholars of Islamic studies. As preservers of this tradition they perform various religious, juridical and teaching functions.'
Under Muslim rulership, what was the status of 'zimmi' people, such as Jews and Christians, who followed revealed scriptures?
Hint: Recall the definition and conditions associated with the term 'zimmi'.
Answer
They gained the right to be protected by Muslims upon paying a tax called jizya.
Explanation
The text explains the category of the 'zimmi', meaning protected, 'developed for people who followed revealed scriptures, such as the Jews and Christians, and lived under Muslim rulership. They paid a tax called jizya and gained the right to be protected by Muslims.' In India, this status was extended to Hindus.
The Shari'a, the law governing the Muslim community, is based on the Qur'an and what other primary source?
Hint: The text provides a specific definition for Shari'a.
Answer
Hadis
Explanation
The text states: 'The shari‘a is the law governing the Muslim community. It is based on the Qur’an and the hadis, traditions of the Prophet including a record of his remembered words and deeds.'
Which of the following is NOT one of the five 'pillars' of Islam mentioned in the text?
Hint: Review the list of five pillars provided in the text.
Answer
Jihad (holy war)
Explanation
The five pillars mentioned are: shahada, namaz/salat, zakat, sawm, and hajj. Jihad is not listed as one of the five pillars.
The Khojahs, a branch of the Ismailis, disseminated ideas derived from the Qur'an through devotional poems called:
Hint: This is a specific literary genre used by the Khojahs.
Answer
Ginans
Explanation
The text states: 'These included the ginan (derived from the Sanskrit jnana, meaning “knowledge”), devotional poems in Punjabi, Multani, Sindhi, Kachchi, Hindi and Gujarati, sung in special ragas during daily prayer meetings.'
In Sanskrit texts and inscriptions between the eighth and fourteenth centuries, Turkish rulers were designated as:
Hint: The text provides specific regional designations for migrants.
Answer
Turushka
Explanation
The text mentions: 'So, the Turkish rulers were designated as Turushka, Tajika were people from Tajikistan and Parashika were people from Persia.'
Sufis turned to asceticism and mysticism primarily in protest against what?
Hint: Consider the context in which Sufism emerged as a distinct movement.
Answer
The growing materialism of the Caliphate.
Explanation
The text states: 'In the early centuries of Islam a group of religious-minded people called sufis turned to asceticism and mysticism in protest against the growing materialism of the Caliphate as a religious and political institution.'
What is a 'khanqah' in Sufi tradition?
Hint: This term refers to a physical institution where Sufis resided and taught.
Answer
A hospice controlled by a teaching master.
Explanation
The text explains: 'Institutionally, the sufis began to organise communities around the hospice or khanqah (Persian) controlled by a teaching master known as shaikh (in Arabic), pir or murshid (in Persian).'
The word 'silsila' literally means 'a chain,' signifying what in Sufi tradition?
Hint: This term describes the lineage and transmission of spiritual authority.
Answer
A continuous link between master and disciple, stretching to the Prophet Muhammad.
Explanation
The text elaborates: 'The word silsila literally means a chain, signifying a continuous link between master and disciple, stretching as an unbroken spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammad.'
Why did Sufi tomb-shrines (dargahs) become centers of devotion and pilgrimage (ziyarat)?
Hint: Consider the spiritual significance attributed to saints after their passing.
Answer
Sufis believed saints in death were united with God and closer to Him.
Explanation
The text explains: 'When the shaikh died, his tomb-shrine (dargah, a Persian term meaning court) became the centre of devotion for his followers. This encouraged the practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat to his grave... This was because people believed that in death saints were united with God, and were thus closer to Him than when living.'
Which group of Sufis, known for their radical interpretation of Sufi ideals, often scorned the khanqah, practiced mendicancy, and ignored rituals?
Hint: These groups are described as 'be-shari'a' Sufis.
Answer
Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris
Explanation
The text mentions: 'Some mystics initiated movements based on a radical interpretation of sufi ideals. Many scorned the khanqah and took to mendicancy and observed celibacy. They ignored rituals and observed extreme forms of asceticism. They were known by different names – Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris, etc.'
The Chishtis became the most influential Sufi group in the subcontinent primarily because they:
Hint: Consider their approach to local customs and traditions.
Answer
Adapted successfully to the local environment and adopted features of Indian devotional traditions.
Explanation
The text explains: 'Of the groups of sufis who migrated to India in the late twelfth century, the Chishtis were the most influential. This was because they adapted successfully to the local environment and adopted several features of Indian devotional traditions.'
What was 'futuh' in the context of a Chishti khanqah?
Hint: This term is related to the sustenance of the khanqah.
Answer
Unasked-for charity used to run the open kitchen (langar).
Explanation
The text mentions: 'There was an open kitchen (langar), run on futuh (unasked-for charity).'
What is 'sama'' in the context of Chishti devotionalism?
Hint: This practice is often associated with qawwali.
Answer
Performance of mystical music to evoke divine ecstasy.
Explanation
The text explains: 'The sufis remember God either by reciting the zikr (the Divine Names) or evoking His Presence through sama‘ (literally, “audition”) or performance of mystical music. Sama‘ was integral to the Chishtis, and exemplified interaction with indigenous devotional traditions.'
Which Chishti saint is popularly known as 'Gharib Nawaz' (comforter of the poor) and has the most revered shrine?
Hint: This saint's dargah attracted significant royal patronage, including from Emperor Akbar.
Answer
Shaikh Muinuddin Sijzi
Explanation
The text states: 'Amongst these, the most revered shrine is that of Khwaja Muinuddin, popularly known as “Gharib Nawaz” (comforter of the poor).'
Emperor Akbar's repeated visits to Khwaja Muinuddin's dargah in Ajmer best illustrate which aspect of Sufi-state relations?
Hint: Consider the reasons mentioned for Akbar's visits.
Answer
Royal patronage and seeking spiritual blessings for political and personal aspirations.
Explanation
Akbar visited the tomb 'to seek blessings for new conquests, fulfilment of vows, and the birth of sons.' This demonstrates rulers seeking spiritual legitimation and blessings from Sufi saints for both political and personal reasons.
In Delhi, those associated with the Chishti silsila conversed in which language?
Hint: This was the local language of the people in the Delhi region.
Answer
Hindavi
Explanation
The text notes: 'In Delhi, those associated with the Chishti silsila conversed in Hindavi, the language of the people.'
Which Sufi poet-saint's verses were incorporated into the Guru Granth Sahib?
Hint: This Sufi composed verses in the local language.
Answer
Baba Farid
Explanation
The text states: 'Other sufis such as Baba Farid composed verses in the local language, which were incorporated in the Guru Granth Sahib.'
The 'prem-akhyan' (love story) Padmavat, composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi, used human love as an allegory for what?
Hint: Consider the allegorical nature of Sufi poetry.
Answer
The soul's journey to the divine.
Explanation
The text explains: 'Other sufis such as Baba Farid composed verses in the local language, which were incorporated in the Guru Granth Sahib. Yet others composed long poems or masnavis to express ideas of divine love using human love as an allegory. For example, the prem-akhyan (love story) Padmavat composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi revolved around the romance of Padmini and Ratansen, the king of Chittor. Their trials were symbolic of the soul’s journey to the divine.'
What was a major feature of the Chishti tradition regarding worldly power?
Hint: Recall their stance on wealth and political engagement.
Answer
Maintaining a distance from worldly power, despite accepting donations.
Explanation
The text states: 'A major feature of the Chishti tradition was austerity, including maintaining a distance from worldly power. However, this was by no means a situation of absolute isolation from political power. The sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from the political elites.'
Why did the Sultans of the Delhi Sultanate often seek out Sufis for legitimation, rather than solely relying on the Ulama?
Hint: Consider the composition of the Sultanate's subjects and the source of Sufi authority.
Answer
Sufis derived authority directly from God and were popular among non-Muslim subjects.
Explanation
The text explains: 'When the Turks set up the Delhi Sultanate, they resisted the insistence of the ulama on imposing shari‘a as state law because they anticipated opposition from their subjects, the majority of whom were non-Muslims. The Sultans then sought out the sufis – who derived their authority directly from God – and did not depend on jurists to interpret the shari‘a.'
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya's refusal of royal gifts of gardens and land, as described in Source 9, primarily illustrates his commitment to:
Hint: He questioned what he would do with such gifts and referenced his spiritual masters.
Answer
Austerity and non-accumulation of worldly possessions.
Explanation
Shaikh Nizamuddin lamented, 'What have I to do with gardens and fields and lands? … None of … our spiritual masters had engaged in such activity.' This highlights a core Sufi ethic of austerity and detachment from material wealth, preferring to use donations for immediate needs rather than accumulation.
Which poet-saint, emerging in the fourteenth-fifteenth centuries, is considered an outstanding example of those who engaged in dialogue with new social situations?
Hint: This figure is introduced at the beginning of the 'New Devotional Paths' section.
Answer
Kabir
Explanation
The text begins the section 'New Devotional Paths' by stating: 'Kabir (c. fourteenth-fifteenth centuries) is perhaps one of the most outstanding examples of a poet-saint who emerged within this context.'
The earliest bhakti movements (c. sixth century) were led by the Alvars and Nayanars in which region?
Hint: The section heading explicitly mentions their region.
Answer
Tamil Nadu
Explanation
The text's heading '2.1 The Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu' directly answers this question.
The incorporation of local deities like Jagannatha into the Puranic framework as a form of Vishnu exemplifies which process?
Hint: This is a key theme in the early part of the document, showing how different traditions interacted.
Answer
The integration of cults through a continuous dialogue between 'great' and 'little' traditions.
Explanation
The text describes this as a 'process of integration' shaped through 'a continuous dialogue between what sociologists have described as “great” Sanskritic Puranic traditions and “little” traditions throughout the land.' The Jagannatha example is explicitly given for this process.
Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, adopted what path to attain her goal?
Hint: Her method of devotion was quite rigorous.
Answer
Extreme asceticism
Explanation
The text says: 'Another woman, Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, adopted the path of extreme asceticism in order to attain her goal.'
Sufi shaikhs enhanced their moral authority and attracted people from all walks of life by:
Hint: How did they manage the financial support they received?
Answer
Using donations fully on immediate requirements like food and clothes.
Explanation
The text states: 'The Chishtis accepted donations in cash and kind. Rather than accumulate donations, they preferred to use these fully on immediate requirements such as food, clothes, living quarters and ritual necessities (such as sama‘). All this enhanced the moral authority of the shaikhs, which in turn attracted people from all walks of life.'
What is 'zikr' in Sufi practice?
Hint: It's one of the ways Sufis remember God.
Answer
Reciting the Divine Names.
Explanation
The text states: 'The sufis remember God either by reciting the zikr (the Divine Names) or evoking His Presence through sama‘ (literally, “audition”) or performance of mystical music.'
What was a suggested reason for the hostility between Tamil bhakti poets (especially Nayanars) and Buddhism and Jainism?
Hint: Consider what rulers provided to religious traditions.
Answer
Competition for royal patronage.
Explanation
The text mentions: 'Historians have attempted to explain this hostility by suggesting that it was due to competition between members of other religious traditions for royal patronage.'
Arab Muslim traders who settled along the Malabar coast adopted local customs such as matriliny and matrilocal residence. What is matrilocal residence?
Hint: The definition is provided in a sidebar.
Answer
A practice where women after marriage remain in their natal home with their children and the husbands may come to stay with them.
Explanation
The text defines: 'Matrilocal residence is a practice where women after marriage remain in their natal home with their children and the husbands may come to stay with them.'
What is 'urs' in Sufi tradition?
Hint: It's a specific event related to the veneration of a deceased saint.
Answer
The annual death anniversary of a Sufi saint, signifying union with God.
Explanation
The text explains: 'This encouraged the practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat to his grave, particularly on his death anniversary or urs (or marriage, signifying the union of his soul with God).'
Amir Khusrau, a disciple of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, gave a unique form to Chishti sama' by introducing what?
Hint: This addition is specifically attributed to Amir Khusrau in the context of qawwali.
Answer
The 'qaul', a hymn sung at the opening or closing of qawwali.
Explanation
The text states: 'Amir Khusrau (1253-1325), the great poet, musician and disciple of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, gave a unique form to the Chishti sama‘ by introducing the qaul (Arabic word meaning “saying”), a hymn sung at the opening or closing of qawwali.'
No comments:
Post a Comment