12 NCERT CBSE Sociology Cultural Change in India
Theme Analysis
Main ThemeCultural Change in India
Subject CategorySociology
Key Concepts
Question FocusThe questions assess understanding of the definitions, causes, impacts, and interrelationships of various social and cultural changes in India, particularly those influenced by colonial rule and reform movements. Emphasis is placed on conceptual clarity, critical analysis of processes like Sanskritisation, and the paradoxical nature of modernity in the Indian context. Questions cover a mixed difficulty range and various Bloom's Taxonomy levels.
According to sociologists, what is the definition of 'social structure'?
Hint: Think about how individuals are organized and interact within a society, guided by established frameworks.
Answer
Social structure is defined as 'a continuing arrangement of persons in relationships defined or controlled by institutions'.
Explanation
The text defines 'social structure' as 'a continuing arrangement of persons in relationships defined or controlled by institutions'. Option A describes culture, while C and D are related but not the direct sociological definition provided.
How do sociologists understand 'culture'?
Hint: Consider the shared customs, traditions, and ways of life that define a group.
Answer
Sociologists understand 'culture' as 'socially established norms or patterns of behaviour'.
Explanation
The text explicitly states that sociologists understand 'culture' as 'socially established norms or patterns of behaviour'. The other options refer to different aspects of society.
What major impact did colonialism have on the structure of Indian society, as described in the text?
Hint: Recall the initial description of how colonialism affected daily life and societal organization.
Answer
Colonialism brought in changes that altered the structure of Indian society, including industrialisation and urbanisation, transforming people's lives.
Explanation
The first paragraph of the chapter states, 'W e saw in the last chapter how colonialism brought in changes that altered the structure of Indian society. Industrialisation and urbanisation transformed the lives of people.' This directly supports option C.
The chapter primarily looks at two related developments concerning cultural change. What are these two developments?
Hint: Think about the two main sections the chapter introduces after the initial overview.
Answer
The chapter examines deliberate social reform efforts by 19th/early 20th century figures and the less deliberate yet decisive changes broadly understood as sanskritisation, modernisation, secularisation, and westernisation.
Explanation
The text states, 'This chapter looks at two related developments... The first deals with the deliberate and conscious efforts made by the 19 th century social reformers and early 20 th century nationalists... The second with the less deliberate yet decisive changes in cultural practices that can broadly be understood as the four processes of sanskritisation, modernisation, secularisation and westernisation.'
What was the primary context for the emergence of social reform movements in India during the 19th century?
Hint: Consider what societal issues were being addressed by these movements.
Answer
The social reform movements emerged in response to the challenges and 'social evils' prevalent in colonial Indian society during the 19th century.
Explanation
The text explicitly states, 'The social reform movements which emerged in India in the 19 th century arose to the challenges that colonial Indian society faced. You probably are familiar with what were termed social evils that plagued Indian society.'
Which of the following was NOT explicitly mentioned as a 'well-known issue' or 'social evil' that plagued Indian society in the 19th century?
Hint: Recall the specific social practices highlighted as targets for reform.
Answer
Widespread illiteracy among men was not explicitly mentioned as one of the 'well-known issues' or 'social evils' that plagued Indian society in the 19th century, unlike sati, child marriage, and the ban on widow remarriage.
Explanation
The text lists 'sati, child marriage, ban on widow remarriage and caste discrimination' as 'well-known issues' or 'social evils'. Widespread illiteracy among men is not mentioned in this specific list.
What distinguished the 19th-century social reform attempts from earlier efforts to fight social discrimination in pre-colonial India (like Buddhism, Bhakti, and Sufi movements)?
Hint: Consider the unique intellectual and historical influences on the 19th-century movements.
Answer
The 19th-century social reform attempts were distinguished by their modern context and a creative combination of modern ideas of western liberalism and a new look on traditional literature.
Explanation
The text states, 'What marked these 19 th century social reform attempts was the modern context and mix of ideas. It was a creative combination of modern ideas of western liberalism and a new look on traditional literature.'
Sociologist Satish Saberwal elaborated upon the modern context of change in colonial India by sketching three key aspects. Which of the following is NOT one of them?
Hint: Recall the three specific categories Saberwal used to describe the changes.
Answer
Agricultural practices were NOT listed by Satish Saberwal as one of the three aspects of the modern framework of change in colonial India.
Explanation
Satish Saberwal's three aspects to the modern framework of change in colonial India were: modes of communication, forms of organisation, and the nature of ideas. Agricultural practices are not mentioned as one of these aspects.
How did new technologies contribute to social reform movements in colonial India?
Hint: Think about how information and people traveled more easily during that era.
Answer
New technologies like the printing press, telegraph, steamship, and railways sped up communication, enabling reformers to exchange ideas across different regions.
Explanation
The text states, 'New technologies speeded up various forms of communication. The printing press, telegraph, and later the microphone, movement of people and goods through steamship and railways helped fast movement of new ideas.' This allowed reformers from different regions to exchange ideas.
Which of the following is an example of a modern social organization that emerged during the reform period in colonial India, as mentioned in the text?
Hint: Recall the names of reform societies or associations mentioned.
Answer
The Brahmo Samaj in Bengal is mentioned as an example of a modern social organization set up during this period.
Explanation
The text mentions, 'Modern social organisations like the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal and Arya Samaj in Punjab were set up. The All-India Muslim Ladies Conference (Anjuman-E-Khawatn-E-Islam) was founded in 1914.'
Beyond public meetings, how did Indian reformers primarily disseminate their debates and ideas to a wider audience?
Hint: Think about the accessible forms of mass communication during that period.
Answer
Indian reformers debated not just in public meetings but also through public media like newspapers and journals, and through translations of their writings.
Explanation
The text states, 'Indian reformers debated not just in public meetings but through public media like newspapers and journals. Translations of writings of social reformers from one Indian language to another took place.'
Which of the following new ideas emerged during the reform period concerning family and identity?
Hint: Consider how societal roles and self-perception started to evolve.
Answer
New ideas of liberalism and freedom, homemaking, marriage, roles for mothers and daughters, and self-conscious pride in culture and tradition emerged.
Explanation
The text mentions, 'New ideas of liberalism and freedom, new ideas of homemaking and marriage, new roles for mothers and daughters, new ideas of self-conscious pride in culture and tradition emerged.'
How was the value of education perceived during this period, particularly in relation to national progress?
Hint: Consider the dual goal reformers had for education.
Answer
Education became very important, seen as crucial for a nation to become modern but also to retain its ancient heritage.
Explanation
The text states, 'The value of education became very important. It was seen as very crucial for a nation to become modern but also to retain its ancient heritage.'
Which social reformer is credited with opening the first school for women in Pune?
Hint: Recall the name of the reformer associated with pioneering female education initiatives.
Answer
Jotiba Phule opened the first school for women in Pune.
Explanation
The text explicitly states, 'Significantly, it was the social reformer Jotiba Phule who opened the first school for women in Pune.'
Reformers debated the meaning of tradition and modernity, particularly concerning female education. What was one way they justified female education?
Hint: Consider how reformers balanced new ideas with historical context.
Answer
Attempts to justify female education were made by recourse to both modern arguments for societal progress and traditional ideas, sometimes contending that women were educated in pre-modern India for a privileged few.
Explanation
The text explains, 'Reformers argued that for a society to progress women have to be educated. Some of them believed that in pre-modern India, women were educated. Others contested this on the grounds that this was so only of a privileged few. Thus attempts to justify female education were made by recourse to both modern and traditional ideas.'
The 19th-century reform period initiated a period of questioning and reinterpretations. How did Jotiba Phule and Bal Gangadhar Tilak differ in their emphasis regarding India's past?
Hint: Recall their specific historical references when debating tradition.
Answer
Jotiba Phule recalled the glory of the pre-Aryan age, while Bal Gangadhar Tilak emphasized the glory of the Aryan period, showcasing different interpretations of tradition.
Explanation
The text states, 'Jotiba Phule thus recalled the glory of pre-Aryan age while others like Bal Gangadhar Tilak emphasised the glory of the Aryan period.' This highlights the varied interpretations of tradition.
Despite common themes, what was a significant difference among the varied social reform movements?
Hint: Consider whose problems were prioritized by different groups of reformers.
Answer
Significant differences existed among reform movements, with some focusing on upper-caste, middle-class issues, and others prioritizing the injustices faced by discriminated castes.
Explanation
The text notes, 'Yet there were also significant differences. For some the concerns were confined to the problems that the upper caste, middle class women and men faced. For others the injustices suffered by the discriminated castes were central questions.'
On what basis did Raja Ram Mohun Roy attack the practice of sati?
Hint: Think about the dual approach he took, combining modern and traditional arguments.
Answer
Raja Ram Mohun Roy attacked sati by appealing to both humanitarian and natural rights doctrines and interpretations of Hindu shastras.
Explanation
Box 2.1 states, 'Raja Ram Mohun Roy attacked the practice of sati on the basis of both appeals to humanitarian and natural rights doctrines as well as Hindu shastras.'
What was the main subject of Ranade's writings like 'The Texts of the Hindu Law on the Lawfulness of the Remarriage of Widows'?
Hint: The title of his work directly indicates the topic.
Answer
Ranade's writings elaborated the shastric sanction for the remarriage of widows.
Explanation
Box 2.1 states, 'Ranade’s writings entitled The Texts of the Hindu Law on the Lawfulness of the Remarriage of Widows and Vedic Authorities for Widow Marriage elaborated the shastric sanction for remarriage of widows.'
What characterized the literary content of the new education in the humanities and social sciences during this period?
Hint: Consider the sources of intellectual influence for the new educational curriculum.
Answer
The literary content of new education was modernising and liberal, drawing themes from the European Renaissance, Reformation, and Enlightenment, emphasizing humanistic, secular, and liberal values.
Explanation
Box 2.1 mentions, 'The content of new education was modernising and liberal. The literary content of the courses in the humanities and social sciences was drawn from the literature of the European Renaissance, Reformation and Enlightenment. Its themes were humanistic, secular and liberal.'
What did Sir Syed Ahmed Khan's interpretation of Islam emphasize?
Hint: Think about how he sought to reconcile Islamic thought with modern knowledge.
Answer
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan's interpretation of Islam emphasized the validity of free enquiry (ijtihad) and the alleged similarities between Koranic revelations and the laws of nature discovered by modern science.
Explanation
Box 2.1 states, 'Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s interpretation of Islam emphasised the validity of free enquiry (ijtihad) and the alleged similarities between Koranic revelations and the laws of nature discovered by modern science.'
What was Jahanara Shah Nawas's argument against polygamy at the All India Muslim Ladies Conference?
Hint: Recall her specific reasoning, linking it to religious texts and women's role.
Answer
Jahanara Shah Nawas argued that the kind of polygamy practiced by certain sections of Muslims was against the true spirit of the Quran, and educated women had a duty to influence their relations to end it.
Explanation
The text quotes Jahanara Shah Nawas: '…the kind of polygamy which is practiced by certain sections of the Muslims is against the true spirit of the Quran…and it is the duty of the educated women to exercise their influence among the relations to put an end to this practice.'
How did orthodox members of the Hindu community in Bengal react to the Brahmo Samaj's opposition to sati?
Hint: Consider how traditional groups responded to challenges to their interpretations.
Answer
Orthodox members formed the Dharma Sabha and petitioned the British, asserting that reformers lacked the authority to interpret sacred texts.
Explanation
The text states, 'For instance, sati was opposed by the Brahmo Samaj. Orthodox members of the Hindu community in Bengal formed an organisation called Dharma Sabha and petitioned the British arguing that reformers had no right to interpret sacred texts.'
What is a key characteristic of the four concepts of sanskritisation, modernisation, secularisation, and westernisation as discussed in the chapter?
Hint: Think about the complex and non-linear nature of social change described.
Answer
The four concepts often overlap, co-exist, and operate differently in various situations, with individuals sometimes being modern in some ways and traditional in others.
Explanation
The text explicitly states, 'But as the discussion unfolds, it will become obvious to you that in many ways they overlap and in many situations they co-exist. In many situations they operate very differently. It is not surprising to find the same person being modern in some ways and traditional in another.'
The text mentions 'paradoxes of colonial modernity.' Which example best illustrates this concept?
Hint: Look for an example where seemingly contradictory behaviors or beliefs coexisted due to colonial influence.
Answer
The paradox is illustrated by the English-educated Indian middle class who, while exposed to Western liberal thought, also asserted pride in traditional learning and scholarship, often humiliated by colonial rule.
Explanation
The text explains, 'As the last chapter has shown colonial modernity had its own paradoxes. Take the example of western education. Colonialism led to the growth of an English educated Indian middle class. They read the thinkers of western enlightenment, philosophers of liberal democracy and dreamt of ushering in a liberal and progressive India. And yet, humiliated by colonial rule they asserted their pride in traditional learning and scholarship.'
The example of how the sari is worn in India today, combining a traditional unstitched cloth with a Western 'petticoat' and 'blouse,' best illustrates which concept?
Hint: Consider what the 'mix and match' of clothing styles reveals about cultural evolution.
Answer
This example illustrates that culture and tradition are living entities, learned and modified by people, often resulting in a 'mix and match' of traditional and modern elements.
Explanation
The text uses the sari example to show that 'Both culture and tradition are living entities. People learn them and in turn modify them.' The modern way of wearing a sari is a 'novel combination of the traditional sari with the western 'petticoat' and 'blouse'.'
Who coined the term 'sanskritisation,' and how is it briefly defined?
Hint: Recall the sociologist associated with this concept and its core meaning regarding caste mobility.
Answer
The term 'sanskritisation' was coined by M.N. Srinivas and is defined as the process by which a 'low' caste or group adopts the customs, rituals, beliefs, ideology, and style of life of a high, 'twice-born' (dwija) caste.
Explanation
The text states, 'The term sanskritisation was coined by M.N. Srinivas. It may be briefly defined as the process by which a ‘low’ caste or tribe or other group takes over the customs, ritual, beliefs, ideology and style of life of a high and, in particular, a ‘twice-born (dwija) caste’.'
In which areas can the impact of Sanskritisation be observed?
Hint: Think about the broad cultural spheres that can be influenced by adopting higher caste practices.
Answer
The impact of Sanskritisation is many-sided, visible primarily in language, literature, ideology, music, dance, drama, style of life, and ritual.
Explanation
The text states, 'The impact of Sanskritisation is many-sided. Its influence can be seen in language, literature, ideology, music, dance, drama, style of life and ritual.' It also notes that Srinivas argued it was visible even in sects and religious groups outside Hinduism.
What regional variation in Sanskritisation did Srinivas observe regarding the dominance of non-Sanskritic castes?
Hint: Consider what happens when the 'lower' group holds more power or influence in a particular area.
Answer
Srinivas observed that in regions where non-Sanskritic castes were dominant, their influence was stronger, a process that could be termed 'de-Sanskritisation'.
Explanation
The text explains, 'In regions where the non-Sanskritic castes were dominant, it was their influence that was stronger. This can be termed the process of 'de-Sanskritisation'.'
According to Srinivas, what effect does the Sanskritisation of a group usually have on its position in the local caste hierarchy?
Hint: Think about the aspirational aspect of Sanskritisation for lower castes.
Answer
Srinivas argued that Sanskritisation usually improves a group's position in the local caste hierarchy, often predicated on economic/political improvement or higher group self-consciousness.
Explanation
Srinivas argued that, 'the Sanskritisation of a group has usually the effect of improving its position in the local caste hierarchy. It normally presupposes either an improvement in the economic or political position of the group concerned or a higher group self-consciousness resulting from its contact with a source of the ‘Great Tradition’ of Hinduism such as a pilgrim centre or a monastery or a proselytising sect.'
What traditional obstacle did lower castes face when attempting to take over the customs of higher castes in India?
Hint: Recall the power dynamics and social control mechanisms in traditional caste society.
Answer
Traditionally, the dominant caste punished those lower castes who were audacious enough to attempt to take over the customs of higher castes.
Explanation
The text states, 'But in a highly unequal society such as India there were and still are obstacles to any easy taking over of the customs of the higher castes by the lower. Indeed, traditionally, the dominant caste punished those low castes, which were audacious enough to attempt it.'
One criticism of Sanskritisation is that it exaggerates social mobility. Why is this argued?
Hint: Consider the difference between an individual's movement within a system versus a change in the system itself.
Answer
Sanskritisation is criticized for exaggerating social mobility because it leads to positional change for some individuals within an unequal structure, but no fundamental structural change, thus inequality persists.
Explanation
The text states, 'One, it has been criticised for exaggerating social mobility or the scope of ‘lower castes’ to move up the social ladder. For it leads to no structural change but only positional change of some individuals. In other words inequality continues to persist though some individuals may be able to improve their positions within the unequal structure.'
Another criticism of Sanskritisation highlights its underlying ideology. What is this criticism?
Hint: Think about the value judgment inherent in adopting 'higher' practices.
Answer
Sanskritisation is criticized for accepting the ways of the 'upper caste' as superior and those of the 'lower caste' as inferior, implying that the desire to imitate the upper caste is natural and desirable.
Explanation
The text states, 'Two, it has been pointed out that the ideology of sanskritisation accepts the ways of the ‘upper caste’ as superior and that of the ‘lower caste’ as inferior. Therefore, the desire to imitate the ‘upper caste’ is seen as natural and desirable.'
What is the third criticism leveled against Sanskritisation regarding its justification of social models?
Hint: Consider how the process might inadvertently reinforce existing social divisions.
Answer
The third criticism is that Sanskritisation appears to justify a model based on inequality and exclusion, implying that believing in the pollution and purity of groups is justifiable.
Explanation
The text states, 'Third, ‘sanskritisation’ seems to justify a model that rests on inequality and exclusion. It appears to suggest that to believe in pollution and purity of groups of people is justifiable or all right.'
How can Sanskritisation lead to regressive social practices, according to the fourth criticism?
Hint: Consider the specific practices associated with higher castes that might be adopted.
Answer
The fourth criticism points out that Sanskritisation results in adopting upper-caste rites and rituals, which can lead to practices such as secluding girls and women, adopting dowry, and practicing caste discrimination.
Explanation
The text states, 'Fourth, since sanskritisation results in the adoption of upper caste rites and rituals it leads to practices of secluding girls and women, adopting dowry practices instead of bride-price and practising caste discrimination against other groups, etc.'
What is the fifth criticism of Sanskritisation concerning Dalit culture and society?
Hint: Think about how adopting higher caste values might devalue the traditional contributions of lower castes.
Answer
The fifth criticism is that Sanskritisation leads to the erosion of key characteristics of Dalit culture and society, degrading the worth of their labor and rendering their identities based on work, crafts, and knowledge forms 'shameful'.
Explanation
The text states, 'Fifth, the effect of such a trend is that the key characteristics of dalit culture and society are eroded. For example the very worth of labour which ‘lower castes’ do is degraded and rendered ‘shameful’. Identities based on the basis of work, crafts and artisanal abilities, knowledge forms of medicine, ecology, agriculture, animal husbandry, etc., are regarded useless in the industrial era.'
What counter-trend emerged in the twentieth century, opposing the influence of Sanskritised culture?
Hint: Consider movements that challenged traditional hierarchies and promoted regional identities.
Answer
The growth of the anti-Brahminical movement and regional self-consciousness in the twentieth century led to attempts to drop Sanskrit words and phrases from several Indian languages.
Explanation
The text mentions, 'With the growth of the anti-Brahminical movement and the development of regional self-consciousness in the twentieth century there was an attempt in several Indian languages to drop Sanskrit words and phrases.' It also notes the Backward Classes Movement emphasizing secular factors.
How does M.N. Srinivas define 'westernisation'?
Hint: Recall Srinivas's definition, specifically linking it to British colonial rule and its broad impact.
Answer
M.N. Srinivas defines westernisation as 'the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule, the term subsuming changes occurring at different levels…technology, institutions, ideology and values'.
Explanation
The text states, 'M.N. Srinivas defines westernisation as “the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule, the term subsuming changes occurring at different levels…technology, institutions, ideology and values”.'
What was one kind of westernisation observed, particularly among a minority section of Indians?
Hint: Think about the specific group of people who first engaged deeply with Western culture and ideas.
Answer
One kind of westernisation refers to the emergence of a westernised sub-cultural pattern through a minority section of Indian intellectuals who adopted Western cognitive patterns, styles of life, and supported its expansion.
Explanation
The text describes, 'One kind refers to the emergence of a westernised sub-cultural pattern through a minority section of Indians who first came in contact with Western culture. This included the sub culture of Indian intellectuals who not only adopted many cognitive patterns, or ways of thinking, and styles of life, but supported its expansion.'
Besides the westernised sub-cultural pattern among intellectuals, what other general spread of Western cultural traits was observed?
Hint: Consider common household items and daily habits that changed.
Answer
There was also a general spread of Western cultural traits, including the use of new technology, changes in dress, food, habits, and styles of people in general.
Explanation
The text states, 'Apart from this there has been also the general spread of Western cultural traits, such as the use of new technology, dress, food, and changes in the habits and styles of people in general. Across the country a very wide section of middle class homes have a television set, a fridge, some kind of sofa set, a dining table and chair in the living room.'
What is a crucial point made about westernisation regarding the adoption of values?
Hint: Think about whether external appearances always reflect internal beliefs or values.
Answer
A crucial point is that westernisation involves the imitation of external forms of culture, but it does not necessarily mean that people adopt modern values of democracy and equality.
Explanation
The text clearly states, 'Westernisation does involve the imitation of external forms of culture. It does not necessarily mean that people adopt modern values of democracy and equality.'
Which scenario best exemplifies the contradiction that Westernisation does not necessarily mean adopting modern values of democracy and equality?
Hint: Look for an example where external modernity clashes with internal traditional or discriminatory values.
Answer
A family adopting Western house interiors but maintaining conservative views on women's roles or using modern technology for female foeticide exemplifies this contradiction.
Explanation
The text provides examples: 'We may find people who are western educated but holding very prejudiced views about particular ethnic or religious communities. A family can adopt external forms of western culture like the way the interiors of houses are done up but may have very conservative ideas about women’s role in society. The practice of female foeticide combines discriminatory attitude towards women and the use of very modern technology.'
How did Western influence impact Indian art, as seen in the example of Raja Ravi Varma?
Hint: Consider how Indian artists integrated new techniques while retaining their cultural context.
Answer
Raja Ravi Varma's work exemplifies how Western influence led to blending traditional two-dimensional styles with Western techniques like perspective and illusionism, even when depicting local subjects or reinterpreting family structures in art.
Explanation
Box 2.2 on Raja Ravi Varma states, 'This is a transitional work which blends elements of a flatter, two-dimensional style popular within earlier water-colours with the newer techniques of perspective and illusionism, made possible by the use of a medium like oil.' It also notes the resemblance to European bourgeois family portraits, even in a matrilineal Kerala context.
M.N. Srinivas suggested a generalisation about Sanskritisation and Westernisation concerning different caste groups. What was it, and why is it difficult to maintain in a diverse country like India?
Hint: Recall Srinivas's proposed pattern of cultural adoption and the counter-examples mentioned.
Answer
Srinivas suggested 'lower castes' sought to be Sanskritised while 'upper castes' sought to be Westernised. This is difficult to maintain in India due to examples like elite Thiyyas in Kerala consciously Westernising to critique caste.
Explanation
The text states, 'Srinivas suggested that while ‘lower castes’ sought to be Sanskritised, ‘upper castes’ sought to be Westernised. In a diverse country such as India this generalisation is difficult to maintain. For instance, studies of Thiyyas (by no means considered ‘upper caste’) in Kerala show conscious efforts to westernise.'
How did the term 'modernisation' evolve in its usage from the 19th and 20th centuries?
Hint: Consider the initial, more tangible meaning, and how it expanded to encompass broader societal development.
Answer
Initially, 'modernisation' referred to improvements in technology and production processes, but later gained wider usage, referring to the development path taken by West Europe or North America.
Explanation
The text explains, 'From the 19 th and more so the 20 th century, the term began to be associated with positive and desirable values. People and societies wanted to be modern. In the early years, modernisation referred to improvement in technology and production processes. Increasingly, however, the term had a wider usage. It referred to the path of development that much of west Europe or North America has taken.'
What makes the story of India's modernisation and secularisation distinct from their growth in the West?
Hint: Consider the historical background of India's encounter with modernity.
Answer
India's modernisation and secularisation are distinct because the beginnings of capitalism and these processes occurred within the colonial context, shaping unique responses and paradoxes.
Explanation
The text states, 'In India the beginnings of capitalism, as we saw in Chapter 1, took place within the colonial context. The story of our modernisation and secularisation is, therefore, quite distinct from their growth in the west.' This is further evidenced by the discussions on westernisation and 19th-century social movements.
According to Rudolph and Rudolph, which characteristic defines 'modernity' concerning individual identity and work?
Hint: Think about the shift from predetermined roles to individual choice in modern societies.
Answer
Rudolph and Rudolph's definition of modernity includes the idea that identity is chosen and achieved, not ascribed, and that work is separated from family, residence, and community in bureaucratic organization.
Explanation
Box 2.4 (What kind of modernity?) states, 'that identity be chosen and achieved, not ascribed and affirmed; that work be separated from family, residence, and community in bureaucratic organisation….'
In the modern West, what has 'secularisation' usually meant?
Hint: Consider the historical trend regarding the role of religion in Western societies.
Answer
In the modern West, secularisation has usually meant a process of decline in the influence of religion.
Explanation
The text states, 'In the modern west, secularisation has usually meant a process of decline in the influence of religion.'
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