11 NCERT CBSE Sociology Sociological Terms, Concepts, and their Use
Theme Analysis
Main ThemeSociological Terms, Concepts, and their Use
Subject CategorySociology
Key Concepts
Question FocusThe questions focus on defining and distinguishing core sociological concepts, comparing different types of social structures and interactions, and understanding the theoretical perspectives discussed in the document. A mix of recall, understanding, and application questions are included, suitable for high school students.
Why is it crucial for sociology to develop a specific terminology, even though its subject matter uses words familiar in everyday life?
Hint: Think about the difference between everyday understanding and scientific analysis.
Answer
Sociology needs specific terminology to move beyond common sense and achieve a clear, precise, and objective understanding of social institutions, which are often taken for granted in everyday life.
Explanation
The text explains that while terms like 'status' and 'roles' exist in common speech, sociological terminology is even more important precisely because its subject matter is familiar. We are so acquainted with social institutions that we cannot see them clearly and precisely through common sense, thus requiring specialized concepts for sociological knowledge.
Which two classical sociologists are mentioned as having contrasting key concepts for understanding society?
Hint: Recall the early stages of sociology's emergence and the contrasting views.
Answer
Karl Marx and Emile Durkheim are mentioned as having contrary and contesting understandings of society, with Marx focusing on class and conflict, and Durkheim on social solidarity and collective conscience.
Explanation
The text states, 'If for Karl Marx class and conflict were key concepts to understand society, social solidarity and collective conscience were key terms for Emile Durkheim.' This highlights their contrasting foundational ideas in sociology.
How do structural functionalists primarily view society?
Hint: Consider the analogy used by functionalists to describe society.
Answer
Structural functionalists view society as essentially harmonious, comparing it to an organism where different parts have a function to play for the maintenance of the whole.
Explanation
The text explains that in the Post-World War II period, sociology was greatly influenced by structural functionalists 'who found society essentially harmonious. They found it useful to compare society to an organism where different parts have a function to play for the maintenance of the whole.'
Concepts like 'status' and 'role' begin with the individual, while concepts like 'social control' or 'stratification' begin from a larger context. This distinction primarily illustrates the difference between which two sociological approaches?
Hint: Think about the scale of analysis in sociology.
Answer
The distinction between concepts starting with the individual (status, role) and those starting from a larger context (social control, stratification) illustrates the difference between microsociology and macrosociology.
Explanation
The text states, 'Within sociology some tried to understand human behaviour by starting with the individual, i.e. micro interaction. Others began with macro structures such as class, caste, market, state or even community. Concepts such as status and role begin with the individual. Concepts such as social control or stratification begin from a larger context within which individuals are already placed.'
What is an 'aggregate' in sociological terms?
Hint: Consider the example of people waiting at a bus stop.
Answer
An aggregate is simply a collection of people who are in the same place at the same time, but share no definite connection with one another.
Explanation
The text explicitly defines aggregates as 'simply collections of people who are in the same place at the same time, but share no definite connection with one another. Passengers waiting at a railway station or airport or bus stop or a cinema audience are examples of aggregates.'
Which of the following best describes a 'quasi group'?
Hint: Think about examples like social classes or crowds before they become organized.
Answer
A quasi group is an aggregate or combination that lacks structure or organization, and whose members may be unaware, or less aware, of the existence of groupings.
Explanation
The document defines a quasi group as 'an aggregate or combination, which lacks structure or organisation, and whose members may be unaware, or less aware, of the existence of groupings. Social classes, status groups, age and gender groups, crowds can be seen as examples of quasi groups.'
A group of individuals belonging to the same social class who are not yet organized as a collective body but later form a political party based on their shared interests, illustrates which sociological concept?
Hint: Consider the potential for unorganized collections of people to become organized.
Answer
This illustrates how a quasi group can evolve into a social group, as individuals belonging to a particular social class or caste may not initially be organized but can later develop a 'we' feeling and form collective bodies like political parties.
Explanation
The text states, 'As these examples suggest quasi groups may well become social groups in time and in specific circumstances. For example, individuals belonging to a particular social class or caste or community may not be organised as a collective body... But class and caste have over a period of time given rise to political parties.'
Which of the following is NOT listed as a characteristic of a social group?
Hint: Recall the defining features of a social group, especially regarding member awareness.
Answer
Complete unawareness of the group's existence among its members is a characteristic of a quasi group, not a social group, which requires a sense of belonging and consciousness of the group.
Explanation
The text lists 'a sense of belonging to identify with other members, i.e. each individual is conscious of the group itself and its own set of rules, rituals and symbols' as a characteristic of a social group. Complete unawareness is associated with quasi groups.
What is the primary distinction sociologists make between primary and secondary groups?
Hint: Think about the nature of interaction and relationships in families versus government offices.
Answer
The primary distinction is that primary groups are characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and co-operation, while secondary groups are relatively large, maintain formal and impersonal relationships.
Explanation
The text defines primary groups as 'a small group of people connected by intimate and face-to-face association and co-operation' and secondary groups as 'relatively large in size, maintain formal and impersonal relationships.' It also notes primary groups are person-oriented, and secondary groups are goal-oriented.
Which of the following is an example of a secondary group?
Hint: Consider which group is typically large, formal, and goal-oriented.
Answer
A students' association is an example of a secondary group due to its relatively large size, formal structure, and goal-oriented nature.
Explanation
The text lists 'Schools, government offices, hospitals, students’ associations etc.' as examples of secondary groups, which are characterized by being 'relatively large in size, maintain formal and impersonal relationships' and are 'goal oriented'.
The concept of 'community' in sociology refers to human relationships that are:
Hint: Think about the characteristics of relationships in a traditional village setting.
Answer
The term 'community' refers to human relationships that are highly personal, intimate, and enduring, with considerable, often total, involvement.
Explanation
The text states, 'The term ‘community’ refers to human relationships that are highly personal, intimate and enduring, those where a person’s involvement is considerable if not total, as in the family, with real friends or a close-knit group.'
What parallel can be drawn between the concepts of 'community' and 'association' with 'primary' and 'secondary' groups, respectively?
Hint: Recall the nature of relationships in each pairing.
Answer
The text suggests drawing a parallel between the community with the primary group and the association with the secondary group, due to their similar characteristics of personal vs. impersonal relationships.
Explanation
The text explicitly states, 'You may draw a parallel between the community with the primary group and the association with the secondary group.' This is because community and primary groups share characteristics of personal, intimate relationships, while association and secondary groups share characteristics of impersonal, formal relationships.
What distinguishes an 'in-group' from an 'out-group'?
Hint: Think about feelings of belonging and separation.
Answer
An in-group is marked by a sense of belonging and 'us' or 'we,' whereas an out-group is one to which the members of an in-group do not belong.
Explanation
The text defines: 'A sense of belonging marks an in-group. This feeling separates ‘us’ or ‘we’ from ‘them’ or ‘they’. An out-group on the other hand is one to which the members of an in-group do not belong.'
During the colonial period, many middle-class Indians aspired to behave like proper Englishmen. In this context, the Englishmen served as a:
Hint: Consider the term for groups whose lifestyles are admired and copied.
Answer
The Englishmen served as a reference group, as their lifestyles were emulated by aspiring middle-class Indians, even though they did not belong to that group.
Explanation
The text states, 'The groups whose lifestyles are emulated are known as reference groups. We do not belong to our reference groups but we do identify ourselves with that group... In the colonial period many middle class Indians aspired to behave like proper Englishman. In that sense they could be seen as a reference group for the aspiring section.'
What is 'peer pressure'?
Hint: Think about the influence of friends or age-mates.
Answer
Peer pressure refers to the social pressure exerted by one’s peers on what one ought to do or not.
Explanation
The text defines 'Peer pressure refers to the social pressure exerted by one’s peers on what one ought to do or not.' It also notes that a peer group is a kind of primary group, usually formed between individuals of similar age or in a common professional group.
How is social stratification most simply defined?
Hint: Recall the analogy of geological layering.
Answer
Social stratification is most simply defined as structural inequalities between different groupings of people, in terms of their access to material or symbolic rewards.
Explanation
The text states, 'Social stratification refers to the existence of structured inequalities between groups in society, in terms of their access to material or symbolic rewards. Thus stratification can most simply be defined as structural inequalities between different groupings of people.'
Which of the following aspects of an individual's life is NOT mentioned as being affected by social stratification?
Hint: Consider the major life chances and resources discussed.
Answer
Personal preferences in music and film are not explicitly mentioned as being unequally distributed due to stratification, unlike health, longevity, security, education, work fulfillment, and political influence.
Explanation
The text explicitly states, 'Every aspect of the life of every individual and household is affected by stratification. Opportunities for health, longevity, security, educational success, fulfillment in work and political influence are all unequally distributed in systematic ways.' Personal preferences are not included in this list.
Historically, which of the following is NOT one of the four basic systems of stratification mentioned?
Hint: Recall the historical systems discussed in the text.
Answer
Ethnicity is not listed as one of the four basic historical systems of stratification. The document mentions slavery, caste, estate, and class.
Explanation
The text states, 'Historically four basic systems of stratification have existed in human societies: slavery, caste, estate and class.'
In a caste stratification system, an individual’s position is primarily determined by:
Hint: Consider how one enters a caste system.
Answer
In a caste stratification system, an individual’s position totally depends on the status attributes ascribed by birth.
Explanation
The text clearly states, 'In a caste stratification system an individual’s position totally depends on the status attributes ascribed by birth rather than on any which are achieved during the course of one’s life.'
The traditional Indian caste system conceptualized the hierarchy in terms of purity or pollution. Which group was considered most pure?
Hint: Recall the hierarchy based on purity mentioned in the text.
Answer
The traditional system believed those who are most pure, the Brahmin priestly castes, are superior to all others.
Explanation
The text explains, 'Each position in the caste structure was defined in terms of its purity or pollution relative to others. The underlying belief was that those who are most pure, the Brahmin priestly castes, are superior to all others...'
According to A.R. Desai, how did modern industries and urbanization affect the caste system in India?
Hint: Consider the impact of shared public spaces on caste-based segregation.
Answer
Modern industries and urbanization challenged traditional caste practices by creating cosmopolitan public spaces like hotels, restaurants, and public transport where people of all castes mingled, making ritual avoidance difficult.
Explanation
A.R. Desai's observations note that 'Modern industries brought into being modern cities honeycombed with cosmopolitan hotels, restaurants, theatres, trams, buses, railways. The modest hotels and restaurants catered for the workers and middle classes became crowded in cities with persons belonging to all castes and even creeds... In trains and buses one occasionally rubbed shoulders with members of the depressed classes...'
Despite the changes brought by urbanization and democracy, why does the text suggest that caste discrimination has not vanished?
Hint: Recall the personal narrative about experiences in the mill.
Answer
The text highlights that while open discrimination might be less visible in public, private interactions and ingrained beliefs of superiority persist, leading to continued subtle discrimination.
Explanation
The text includes Parmar's observation: 'In the mill there may be no open discrimination of the kind that exists in the villages, but experience of private interactions tells another story. Parmar observed… They will not even drink water from our hands and they sometimes use abusive language when dealing with us. This is because they feel and believe they are superior.'
According to Marxist theory, how are social classes defined?
Hint: Think about ownership of resources like land or factories.
Answer
In Marxist theory, social classes are defined by what relation they have to the means of production.
Explanation
The text states, 'In the Marxist theory social classes are defined by what relation they have to the means of production. Questions could be asked as to whether groups are owners of means of production such as land or factories? Or whether they are owners of nothing but their own labour?'
Max Weber's concept of 'life-chances' primarily refers to:
Hint: Consider how economic position influences opportunities.
Answer
Weber used the term life-chances to refer to the rewards and advantages afforded by market capacity.
Explanation
The text explains, 'Weber used the term life-chances, which refers to the rewards and advantages afforded by market capacity. Inequality, Weber argued might be based on economic relations. But it could also be based on prestige or on political power.'
How does the functionalist theory explain the universal presence of social stratification?
Hint: Think about the 'function' of stratification for society's stability.
Answer
Functionalist theory posits that social inequality is an unconsciously evolved device by which societies ensure that the most important positions are deliberately filled by the most qualified persons.
Explanation
The text states, 'The functionalist theory of social stratification begins from the general presupposition or belief of functionalism that no society is “classless” or unstratified. The main functional necessity explains the universal presence of social stratification in requirements faced by a society of placing and motivating individuals in the social structure. Social inequality or stratification is thus an unconsciously evolved device by which societies ensure that the most important positions are deliberately filled by the most qualified persons.'
What is a key difference between a traditional caste system and a modern class system?
Hint: Consider how individuals acquire their position in each system.
Answer
A traditional caste system is fixed, rigid, and transmitted across generations, whereas a modern class system is open and achievement-based.
Explanation
The text clearly states, 'In a traditional caste system social hierarchy is fixed, rigid and transmitted across generations. Modern class system in contrast is open and achievement-based.'
What is a 'status' in sociological terms?
Hint: Think about the positions people occupy in society.
Answer
A status is simply a position in society or in a group with defined rights and duties assigned to these positions.
Explanation
The text defines 'status' as 'simply a position in society or in a group. Every society and every group has many such positions and every individual occupies many such positions. Status thus refers to the social position with defined rights and duties assigned to these positions.'
What is a 'role' in sociological terms?
Hint: Recall the phrase 'status is occupied, but roles are played.'
Answer
A role is the dynamic or the behavioral aspect of status.
Explanation
The text defines 'role' as 'the dynamic or the behavioural aspect of status. Status is occupied, but roles are played. We may say that a status is an institutionalised role.'
A school student who is also a customer to her grocer, a passenger to the bus driver, and a sister to her sibling, demonstrates the concept of:
Hint: Consider the collection of all positions an individual holds at one time.
Answer
This demonstrates the concept of a status set, which is the multiple different statuses an individual occupies in a modern complex society.
Explanation
The text explains, 'It must be apparent that each individual in a modern complex society such as ours occupies many different kinds of status during the course of his/her life. You as a school student may be a student to your teacher, a customer to your grocer, a passenger to the bus driver, a brother or sister to your sibling and a patient to the doctor. Needless to say, we could keep adding to the list. The smaller and simpler the society, the fewer the kinds of status that an individual can have. In a modern society an individual as we saw occupies multiple status which is sociologically termed as status set.'
What is the difference between 'ascribed status' and 'achieved status'?
Hint: Think about how one acquires status in a caste system versus a modern professional career.
Answer
Ascribed status is a social position a person occupies because of birth or assumes involuntarily, whereas achieved status is a social position occupied voluntarily by personal ability, achievements, virtues, and choices.
Explanation
The text defines: 'An ascribed status is a social position, which a person occupies because of birth, or assumes involuntarily. The most common bases for ascribed status are age, caste, race and kinship.' And 'An achieved status on the other hand refers to a social position that a person occupies voluntarily by personal ability, achievements, virtues and choices.'
A person who becomes a father, then a grandfather, and later a great-grandfather, illustrates the concept of:
Hint: Consider the progression of statuses over a lifetime.
Answer
This illustrates a status sequence, which refers to the status attained in succession or sequence at various stages of life.
Explanation
The text states, 'Individuals acquire different status at various stages of life. A son becomes a father, a grandfather, and then great grandfather and so on. This is called a status sequence for it refers to the status, which is attained in succession or sequence at various stages of life.'
What is 'prestige' in relation to status?
Hint: Think about why some jobs are considered more 'respected' than others.
Answer
Prestige is the kind of value attached to a status or to the office, allowing people to rank statuses as high or low.
Explanation
The text states, 'Values are attached to the social position, rather than to the person who occupies it or to his/her performance or to his/her actions. The kind of value attached to the status or to the office is called prestige. People can rank status in terms of their high or low prestige.'
A middle-class working woman who has to manage her responsibilities as a mother and wife at home, while also fulfilling her duties as a professional at work, is a common example of:
Hint: Consider the challenges arising from incompatible demands of different roles.
Answer
This situation is a common example of role conflict, which occurs when contrary expectations arise from two or more roles corresponding to one or more statuses.
Explanation
The text explains, 'Role conflict is the incompatibility among roles corresponding to one or more status. It occurs when contrary expectations arise from two or more roles. A common example is that of the middle class working woman who has to juggle her role as mother and wife at home and that of a professional at work.'
What does 'role stereotyping' refer to?
Hint: Think about traditional expectations for men and women.
Answer
Role stereotyping is a process of reinforcing some specific role for some member of the society, often seen in how men and women are socialized into 'breadwinner' and 'homemaker' roles.
Explanation
The text defines 'Role stereotyping is a process of reinforcing some specific role for some member of the society. For example men and women are often socialised in stereotypical roles, as breadwinner and homemaker respectively.'
The text argues against the mistaken view that individuals simply 'take on' roles. Instead, it suggests that individuals:
Hint: Consider the active involvement of individuals in shaping their social positions.
Answer
The text argues that individuals exercise agency, creating or negotiating roles through an ongoing process of social interaction, rather than simply taking them on passively.
Explanation
The text states, 'This view, however, is mistaken. It suggests that individuals simply take on roles, rather than creating or negotiating them. In fact, socialisation is a process in which humans can exercise agency; they are not simply passive subjects waiting to be instructed or programmed. Individuals come to understand and assume social roles through an ongoing process of social interaction.'
What is the primary definition of 'social control' in sociology?
Hint: Think about how societies maintain order and conformity.
Answer
Social control refers to the various means used by a society to bring its recalcitrant or unruly members back into line.
Explanation
The text defines 'Social control' as 'one of the most generally used concepts in sociology. It refers to the various means used by a society to bring its recalcitrant or unruly members back into line.'
From a functionalist perspective, what is the purpose of social control?
Hint: Recall how functionalists view society's overall harmony and stability.
Answer
From a functionalist perspective, social control is directed to restrain deviant behavior, mitigate tensions and conflicts, and maintain social order and social cohesion.
Explanation
The text states that for a functionalist perspective, social control is 'directed to restrain deviant behaviour of individuals or groups on the one hand, and on the other, to mitigate tensions and conflicts among individuals and groups to maintain social order and social cohesion. In this way social control is seen as necessary to stability in society.'
How do conflict theorists typically view social control?
Hint: Recall how conflict theorists view power and inequality in society.
Answer
Conflict theorists usually see social control more as a mechanism to impose the social control of dominant social classes on the rest of society.
Explanation
The text explains, 'Conflict theorists usually would see social control more as a mechanism to impose the social control of dominant social classes on the rest of society. Stability would be seen as the writ of one section over the other. Likewise, law would be seen as the formal writ of the powerful and their interests on society.'
Which of the following is an example of 'formal social control'?
Hint: Think about official, systematic means of control.
Answer
The police arresting a suspect for breaking the law is an example of formal social control, which involves codified, systematic mechanisms and agencies like law and the state.
Explanation
The text states, 'When the codified, systematic, and other formal mechanism of control is used, it is known as formal social control. There are agencies and mechanism of formal social control, for example, law and the state.' The other options are examples of informal social control.
Which of the following is an example of 'informal social control'?
Hint: Think about everyday, unofficial ways societies regulate behavior.
Answer
A family using criticism or praise to guide a child's behavior is an example of informal social control, which is personal, unofficial, and uncodified.
Explanation
The text states, 'In every society there is another type of social control that is known as informal social control. It is personal, unofficial and uncodified. They include smiles, making faces, body language, frowns, criticism, ridicule, laughter etc.' It also lists family, religion, and kinship as agencies of informal social control.
What is a 'sanction' in the context of social control?
Hint: Think about how societies encourage or discourage certain actions.
Answer
A sanction is a mode of reward or punishment that reinforces socially expected forms of behaviour, and can be positive or negative.
Explanation
The glossary defines 'Sanctions' as 'A mode of reward or punishment that reinforce socially expected forms of behaviour.' The text further elaborates that social control can be positive (rewards) or negative (punishments).
What does 'deviance' refer to in sociology?
Hint: Consider behavior that goes against established rules.
Answer
Deviance refers to modes of action that do not conform to the norms or values held by most of the members of a group or society.
Explanation
The text states, 'Deviance refers to modes of action, which do not conform to the norms or values held by most of the members of a group or society.'
The text provides an example of a woman choosing to become an astronaut, which might be considered deviant at one time and applauded at another. What does this illustrate about 'deviance'?
Hint: Think about how societal views and norms evolve over time.
Answer
This illustrates that ideas of deviance are challenged and change from one period to another, and are as widely variable as the norms and values distinguishing different cultures and subcultures.
Explanation
The text states, 'What is regarded as ‘deviant’ is as widely variable as the norms and values that distinguish different cultures and subcultures. Likewise ideas of deviance are challenged and change from one period to another. For example, a woman choosing to become an astronaut may be considered deviant at one time, and be applauded at another time even in the same society.'
In the glossary, 'microsociology' is defined as the study of everyday behavior in situations of:
Hint: Recall the scale of analysis for microsociology.
Answer
Microsociology is defined as the study of everyday behavior in situations of face-to-face interaction.
Explanation
The glossary explicitly states: 'Microsociology and Macrosociology: The study of everyday behaviour in situations of face-to-face interaction is usually called microsociology. In microsociology, analysis occurs at the level of individuals or small groups.'
According to the glossary, what is a key difference between 'functionalism' and 'conflict theories'?
Hint: Recall the basic premise of each theoretical perspective regarding societal harmony or discord.
Answer
Functionalism views society as a complex, harmonious system where parts work together, whereas conflict theories focus on tensions, divisions, and competing interests that arise from the struggle for scarce resources.
Explanation
The glossary defines 'Functionalism' as 'A theoretical perspective based on the notion that social events can best be explained in terms of the function they perform — that is the contribution they make to the continuity of a society. And on a view of society as a complex system whose various parts work in relationship to each other in a way that needs to be understood.' And 'Conflict Theories' as 'A sociological perspective that focuses on the tensions, divisions and competing interests present in human societies. Conflict theorists believe that the scarcity and value of resources in society produces conflict as groups struggle to gain access to and control those resources.'
What does 'means of production' refer to?
Hint: Recall the Marxist concept related to economic activity.
Answer
The means of production refers to the means whereby the production of material goods is carried on in a society, including not just technology but also the social relations between producers.
Explanation
The glossary defines 'Means of Production' as 'The means whereby the production of material goods is carried on in a society, including not just technology but the social relations between producers.'
Sociologists observed that traditional, small-scale societies were marked by close, face-to-face interaction, while modern, large-scale societies were marked by formal interaction. This observation led them to distinguish which two types of groups?
Hint: Think about the intimacy and scale of interaction.
Answer
This observation led sociologists to distinguish primary from secondary groups, and community from society or association, based on the nature of interaction.
Explanation
The text states, 'For instance sociologists observed that simple, small scale and traditional societies were more marked by close, often face-to-face interaction. And modern, large scale societies by formal interaction. They therefore distinguished primary from secondary groups, community from society or association.'
A small child threatening another with 'I will tell my elder brother' to exert influence over peers is an example of which aspect of social control mentioned by Berger?
Hint: Recall Berger's specific discussion on the 'ultimate argument' and the power of threats.
Answer
This example highlights the use of the mere threat of ultimate violence, even if it's a fabricated claim (like an invented big brother), as a means of day-to-day social control, as discussed by Berger.
Explanation
The text quotes Berger: 'A little boy can exercise considerable control over his peer group by having a big brother who, if need be, can be called upon to beat up any opponents. In the absence of such a brother, however it is possible to invent one. It will then be a question of the public-relations talents of the little boy as to whether he will succeed in translating his invention into actual control.' This illustrates the power of a perceived, even if fraudulent, threat.
The text concludes that sociological classifications and types are 'keys to open locks to understand society' and 'entry points in our understanding, not the final answer.' What does this imply about sociological concepts?
Hint: Consider the metaphor of keys and locks and what happens if a key gets 'rusted or bent.'
Answer
This implies that sociological concepts are dynamic tools for understanding, not fixed answers. They require constant questioning, modification, and adaptation to fit the evolving complexities of society.
Explanation
The text emphasizes the dynamic nature of sociological concepts: 'The important point is that these classifications and types that we discuss in sociology help us as the tools through which we can understand reality. They are keys to open locks to understand society. They are entry points in our understanding, not the final answer. But what if the key becomes rusted or bent or does not fit the lock, or fits in with effort? In such situations we need to change or modify the key. In sociology we both use and also constantly interrogate or question the concepts and categories.'
The text highlights that individuals learn social roles through socialization but cautions against viewing them as passive subjects. What is the alternative perspective offered?
Hint: Think about whether individuals merely accept roles or actively shape them.
Answer
The text offers the perspective that individuals exercise agency, meaning they are not just passive recipients of roles but actively create or negotiate them through continuous social interaction.
Explanation
The text states: 'This view, however, is mistaken. It suggests that individuals simply take on roles, rather than creating or negotiating them. In fact, socialisation is a process in which humans can exercise agency; they are not simply passive subjects waiting to be instructed or programmed. Individuals come to understand and assume social roles through an ongoing process of social interaction.'
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