12 NCERT CBSE History
An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara
An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara (c. 14th to 16th Century)
High School History | Comprehensive Assessment & Historical Overview
Lesson Summary & Overview
This lesson delves into the fascinating history of the Vijayanagara Empire, a powerful South Indian kingdom that flourished from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century. Known as 'city of victory,' Vijayanagara was rediscovered as Hampi, a name linked to the local goddess Pampadevi, through a combination of oral traditions, archaeological finds, and the pioneering work of Colonel Colin Mackenzie. The empire's foundation by Harihara and Bukka, its fluctuating frontiers, and its strategic interactions with Deccan Sultans and Gajapati rulers are explored, highlighting the sharing of architectural ideas and the critical role of trade in horses, spices, textiles, and precious stones for its prosperity.
The assessment covers the empire's political dynamics, including the succession of dynasties like the Sangamas, Saluvas, Tuluvas, and Aravidus, and the significant reign of Krishnadeva Raya, renowned for his administrative prowess and architectural contributions. A key focus is the 'amara-nayaka' system, a military and administrative innovation crucial to the empire's control over the southern peninsula. The lesson also details the eventual decline of Vijayanagara, culminating in the decisive Battle of Talikota in 1565, and the subsequent abandonment of the city.
Furthermore, the module examines the distinctive urban layout and architectural marvels of Vijayanagara, categorizing them into the urban core, royal centre, and sacred centre. Students will learn about the sophisticated water management systems, impressive fortifications enclosing even agricultural lands, and iconic structures such as the Mahanavami Dibba, Lotus Mahal, and the Virupaksha and Vitthala temples. The lesson emphasizes the blend of indigenous and Indo-Islamic architectural styles, the symbolic significance of rituals, and the meticulous archaeological methods employed to reconstruct the vibrant life of this imperial capital, making it a crucial study for understanding medieval Indian history and cultural heritage.
Theme Analysis & Strategy
Main ThemeThe Rise and Fall of the Vijayanagara Empire
Subject CategoryIndian History
Key Concepts
Question FocusQuestions will assess understanding of the founding, administration, economy, urban development, architectural styles, and decline of the Vijayanagara Empire, emphasizing key figures, systems, and significant historical events. Distractors will be plausible and derived from the text.
What was the name given to the ruins of Vijayanagara by people living in the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab, derived from a local mother goddess?
Hint: Think about the common name for the ruins of the city today.
Answer
The ruins were remembered as Hampi, a name derived from the local mother goddess, Pampadevi.
Explanation
The text states: 'They remembered it as Hampi, a name derived from that of the local mother goddess, Pampadevi.'
Who brought the ruins at Hampi to light in 1800 and prepared the first survey map of the site?
Hint: This person was an engineer and antiquarian working for the English East India Company.
Answer
Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian, brought the ruins of Hampi to light.
Explanation
The text explicitly states: 'The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by an engineer and antiquarian named Colonel Colin Mackenzie.'
Which of the following sources was NOT primarily used by historians to reconstruct the history of Vijayanagara?
Hint: Consider the types of historical records mentioned for reconstructing the empire's past.
Answer
While Colin Mackenzie studied Vijayanagara to understand governance, official British colonial reports on daily life were not listed as a primary source for reconstructing the empire's history.
Explanation
The text mentions 'memories of priests,' 'archaeological finds, monuments and inscriptions,' 'accounts of foreign travellers,' and 'other literature written in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Sanskrit.' Official British colonial reports on daily life were not listed as a source for reconstructing the *history of the city and the empire* in the same context.
According to tradition and epigraphic evidence, who founded the Vijayanagara Empire?
Hint: The founders were two brothers.
Answer
Harihara and Bukka, two brothers, are credited with founding the Vijayanagara Empire.
Explanation
The text states: 'According to tradition and epigraphic evidence two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, founded the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336.'
What was a significant outcome of the interaction between Vijayanagara kings and their contemporary rulers like the Deccan Sultans and Gajapati rulers?
Hint: Consider what was shared between rival kingdoms, beyond just conflict.
Answer
Interaction between these states led to the sharing of ideas, particularly in the field of architecture, where Vijayanagara rulers borrowed and developed building techniques.
Explanation
The text mentions: 'At the same time, interaction between these states led to sharing of ideas, especially in the field of architecture. The rulers of Vijayanagara borrowed concepts and building techniques which they then developed further.'
Which group of merchants was known as 'kudirai chettis' in the context of Vijayanagara's trade?
Hint: The term relates to a crucial commodity for warfare.
Answer
Local communities of merchants specializing in horse trade were known as 'kudirai chettis'.
Explanation
The text states: 'Local communities of merchants known as kudirai chettis or horse merchants also participated in these exchanges.'
Which European power arrived on the west coast of the subcontinent in 1498 and became important players in the region's politics due to their superior military technology?
Hint: This European power was known for early maritime exploration and trade in India.
Answer
The Portuguese arrived in 1498 and, with their superior military technology, became significant players.
Explanation
The text mentions: 'From 1498 other actors appeared on the scene. These were the Portuguese, who arrived on the west coast of the subcontinent and attempted to establish trading and military stations. Their superior military technology, especially the use of muskets, enabled them to become important players...'
Based on Krishnadeva Raya's advice in the 'Amuktamalyada,' why was encouraging foreign trade important for a king?
Hint: Think about the strategic implications of trade, especially for military resources.
Answer
Krishnadeva Raya emphasized providing incentives to foreign merchants so that valuable imports like horses and elephants would not be diverted to rival kingdoms, thereby strengthening his own state.
Explanation
Krishnadeva Raya wrote: 'Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who import elephants and good horses be attached to yourself by providing them with daily audience, presents and allowing decent profits. Then those articles will never go to your enemies.' This highlights the strategic importance of trade for military and economic advantage.
Which dynasty did Krishnadeva Raya belong to?
Hint: Recall the sequence of dynasties mentioned in the text.
Answer
Krishnadeva Raya was a ruler of the Tuluva dynasty.
Explanation
The text states: 'They were supplanted by the Saluvas... when they were replaced by the Tuluvas. Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty.'
In what year did the Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota) occur, leading to the sacking of Vijayanagara?
Hint: This battle marked a turning point in the empire's history.
Answer
The Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota) took place in 1565.
Explanation
The text states: 'Eventually this led to an alliance of the Sultanates against Vijayanagara. In 1565 Rama Raya... led the army into battle at Rakshasi-Tangadi (also known as Talikota), where his forces were routed... The victorious armies sacked the city of Vijayanagara.'
What was the adventurous policy of Rama Raya that led to the combined defeat of Vijayanagara by the Sultanates?
Hint: Consider Rama Raya's diplomatic strategy with the Sultanates.
Answer
Rama Raya's 'adventurous policy' of attempting to manipulate the Deccan Sultanates against each other ultimately backfired, leading them to unite against Vijayanagara.
Explanation
The text explains: 'It was the adventurous policy of Rama Raya who tried to play off one Sultan against another that led the Sultans to combine together and decisively defeat him.'
What was the 'amara-nayaka' system in the Vijayanagara Empire?
Hint: This system involved military chiefs and land administration.
Answer
The 'amara-nayaka' system was a significant political innovation where military commanders were given territories to govern, collect taxes, and maintain troops.
Explanation
The text describes: 'The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire... The amara-nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the raya. They collected taxes and other dues... They retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants.'
What was one of the primary responsibilities of the 'amara-nayakas' regarding revenue?
Hint: Their responsibilities included both personal and military expenses.
Answer
Amara-nayakas were allowed to retain a portion of the collected revenue for their personal use and for the maintenance of their military contingents.
Explanation
The text states: 'They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons and traders in the area. They retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants.'
How did the 'amara-nayaka' system contribute to the eventual collapse of the central imperial structure?
Hint: Consider the long-term trend of the nayakas' power.
Answer
Over time, many nayakas used their granted territories and military power to establish independent kingdoms, which significantly weakened the central authority and hastened the empire's collapse.
Explanation
The text notes: 'However, during the course of the seventeenth century, many of these nayakas established independent kingdoms. This hastened the collapse of the central imperial structure.'
What is the most striking natural feature about the location of Vijayanagara, crucial for its water resources?
Hint: It's the main river flowing through the region.
Answer
The natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra was the most striking feature, providing essential water resources.
Explanation
The text states: 'The most striking feature about the location of Vijayanagara is the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterly direction.'
Which important tank, built in the early fifteenth century, irrigated nearby fields and supplied water to the 'royal centre'?
Hint: This tank is a key example of the city's water management.
Answer
The Kamalapuram tank was a significant waterworks that irrigated fields and supplied the royal centre.
Explanation
The text states: 'The most important such tank was built in the early years of the fifteenth century and is now called Kamalapuram tank. Water from this tank not only irrigated fields nearby but was also conducted through a channel to the “royal centre”.'
What was a significant and unusual feature of Vijayanagara's fortifications, as observed by Abdur Razzaq and Paes?
Hint: Consider what was enclosed within the multiple lines of walls.
Answer
Unlike many medieval cities, Vijayanagara's extensive fortifications uniquely enclosed not just the urban area but also significant agricultural land, providing resilience during sieges.
Explanation
The text highlights: 'What was most significant about this fortification is that it enclosed agricultural tracts. Abdur Razzaq noted that “between the first, second and the third walls there are cultivated fields, gardens and houses”. And Paes observed: “From this first circuit until you enter the city there is a great distance, in which are fields in which they sow rice and have many gardens and much water...”'
The arch on the gateway and the dome over the gate in Vijayanagara's fortifications are regarded as typical features of architecture introduced by which group?
Hint: This architectural style is often referred to as 'Indo-Islamic'.
Answer
These architectural elements (arches and domes) are identified as typical features introduced by the Turkish Sultans, contributing to the Indo-Islamic style.
Explanation
The text states: 'The arch on the gateway leading into the fortified settlement as well as the dome over the gate (Fig. 7.6) are regarded as typical features of the architecture introduced by the Turkish Sultans. Art historians refer to this style as Indo-Islamic...'
What archaeological evidence suggests that some areas in the urban core of Vijayanagara were occupied by rich traders, including a Muslim residential quarter?
Hint: This evidence points to luxury goods from a distant land.
Answer
The discovery of fine Chinese porcelain shards indicates the presence of wealthy traders, including a Muslim residential quarter, in certain urban areas.
Explanation
The text mentions: 'Archaeologists have found fine Chinese porcelain in some areas, including in the north-eastern corner of the urban core and suggest that these areas may have been occupied by rich traders. This was also the Muslim residential quarter.'
The 'mahanavami dibba' is a massive platform located in which part of Vijayanagara?
Hint: This platform was associated with royal ceremonies.
Answer
The 'mahanavami dibba' is a distinctive structure found within the Royal Centre of Vijayanagara.
Explanation
The text states: 'Located on one of the highest points in the city, the “mahanavami dibba” is a massive platform...'
What Hindu festival did the rituals associated with the 'mahanavami dibba' probably coincide with?
Hint: The name of the platform itself provides a clue.
Answer
The rituals on the 'mahanavami dibba' coincided with the Mahanavami festival, known by various names across India.
Explanation
The text states: 'Rituals associated with the structure probably coincided with Mahanavami (literally, the great ninth day) of the ten-day Hindu festival during the autumn months of September and October, known variously as Dusehra (northern India), Durga Puja (in Bengal) and Navaratri or Mahanavami (in peninsular India).'
What was the main purpose of the ceremonies performed on the 'mahanavami dibba' by the Vijayanagara kings?
Hint: Consider the symbolic meaning of grand public displays by rulers.
Answer
The elaborate ceremonies on the 'mahanavami dibba' were designed to publicly demonstrate the king's prestige, power, and ultimate authority over his empire and subordinate rulers.
Explanation
The text states: 'The Vijayanagara kings displayed their prestige, power and suzerainty on this occasion. The ceremonies performed on the occasion included worship of the image, worship of the state horse, and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals... as well as ritual presentations before the king and his guests by the chief nayakas and subordinate kings...'
Which building in the royal centre was named by British travellers in the nineteenth century and is suggested to have been a council chamber?
Hint: This building has a distinctive floral name.
Answer
The Lotus Mahal, named by British travellers, is hypothesized to have served as a council chamber for the king and his advisors.
Explanation
The text says: 'One of the most beautiful buildings in the royal centre is the Lotus Mahal, so named by British travellers in the nineteenth century... One suggestion, found in a map drawn by Mackenzie, is that it may have been a council chamber, a place where the king met his advisers.'
The Hazara Rama temple was probably meant to be used only by whom?
Hint: Consider the restricted access implied by its location within the royal center and specific carvings.
Answer
The Hazara Rama temple was likely reserved for the exclusive use of the king and his immediate family.
Explanation
The text states: 'One of the most spectacular of these is one known as the Hazara Rama temple. This was probably meant to be used only by the king and his family.'
The Sacred Centre of Vijayanagara was located on the banks of which river?
Hint: Recall the main river associated with Vijayanagara's geography.
Answer
The Sacred Centre was situated on the banks of the Tungabhadra river, at the rocky northern end of the city.
Explanation
The text states: 'We now move to the rocky northern end of the city on the banks of the Tungabhadra. According to local tradition, these hills sheltered the monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana.'
Why was temple building often encouraged by rulers in the Vijayanagara Empire?
Hint: Think about the political and religious motivation behind royal patronage of temples.
Answer
Rulers frequently patronized temple construction to link themselves with deities, thereby enhancing their legitimacy, power, wealth, and piety in the eyes of their subjects.
Explanation
The text explains: 'Rulers very often encouraged temple building as a means of associating themselves with the divine – often, the deity was explicitly or implicitly identified with the king... From the point of view of the rulers, constructing, repairing and maintaining temples were important means of winning support and recognition for their power, wealth and piety.'
The Vijayanagara kings used the title 'Hindu Suratrana' which was a Sanskritisation of the Arabic term Sultan meaning king. What did this title literally mean?
Hint: The explanation is in the question itself.
Answer
'Hindu Suratrana' literally meant 'Hindu Sultan,' showcasing a blend of cultural influences.
Explanation
The text states: 'Rulers also indicated their close links with the gods by using the title “Hindu Suratrana”. This was a Sanskritisation of the Arabic term Sultan, meaning king, so it literally meant Hindu Sultan.'
What architectural feature of immense scale in Vijayanagara temples often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines and was a mark of imperial authority?
Hint: These are massive gateways at the entrance of temple complexes.
Answer
The 'raya gopurams' (royal gateways) were towering structures that demonstrated imperial authority and often overshadowed the main temple towers.
Explanation
The text states: 'These included structures of immense scale that must have been a mark of imperial authority, best exemplified by the raya gopurams (Fig. 7.7) or royal gateways that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines, and signalled the presence of the temple from a great distance.'
Who is credited with building the hall in front of the main shrine and the eastern gopuram of the Virupaksha temple?
Hint: This famous ruler was known for his patronage of temples.
Answer
Krishnadeva Raya made significant additions to the Virupaksha temple, including the hall in front of the main shrine and the eastern gopuram.
Explanation
The text notes: 'The hall in front of the main shrine was built by Krishnadeva Raya to mark his accession... He is also credited with the construction of the eastern gopuram.'
What unique architectural feature is found in the Vitthala temple complex?
Hint: This feature is a famous stone structure in the temple courtyard.
Answer
The Vitthala temple features a distinctive shrine designed in the shape of a chariot.
Explanation
The text states: 'As in the case of other temples, this temple too has several halls and a unique shrine designed as a chariot (Fig. 7.24).'
When was Hampi recognized as a site of national importance?
Hint: Check the timeline for milestones in Hampi's conservation.
Answer
Hampi was recognized as a site of national importance in 1976, leading to increased conservation efforts.
Explanation
The text mentions: 'In 1976, Hampi was recognised as a site of national importance.'
What was the first step in the detailed mapping project of Vijayanagara launched in the early 1980s?
Hint: Think about how large-scale archaeological surveys are organized spatially.
Answer
The initial step involved systematically dividing the entire site into 25 large squares, which were then further subdivided for meticulous documentation.
Explanation
The text describes: 'The first step was to divide the entire area into a set of 25 squares, each designated by a letter of the alphabet. Then, each of the small squares was subdivided into a set of even smaller squares.'
Why do scholars like John M. Fritz, George Michell, and M.S. Nagaraja Rao emphasize imagining 'vanished wooden elements' when studying Vijayanagara's monuments?
Hint: Consider what types of materials decompose over time and how they would have contributed to the original appearance.
Answer
Imagining vanished wooden elements is crucial because much of the original structure, especially decorative and functional components like columns, ceilings, and eaves, would have been made of wood and are necessary to fully appreciate the buildings' original appearance and design.
Explanation
The text quotes: 'In our study of these monuments of Vijayanagara we have to imagine a whole series of vanished wooden elements – columns, brackets, beams, ceilings, overhanging eaves, and towers – decorated with plaster and painted, perhaps brightly.' This emphasizes that the stone remains alone do not convey the full picture of the original structures.
According to Domingo Paes, what was a notable characteristic of the bazaars in Vijayanagara?
Hint: Paes's description paints a picture of great wealth and abundance.
Answer
Paes described Vijayanagara as 'the best-provided city in the world,' with markets offering a vast array of goods, from precious stones to abundant, cheap provisions.
Explanation
Paes described the city as being 'the best-provided city in the world' with the markets 'stocked with provisions such as rice, wheat, grains, India corn and a certain amount of barley and beans, moong, pulses and horse-gram' all of which were cheaply and abundantly available, along with rubies, diamonds, emeralds, pearls, and cloths.
Which of the following travelers visited Vijayanagara in the fifteenth century?
Hint: Three of the options visited in the sixteenth century.
Answer
Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador from Persia, visited Vijayanagara in the fifteenth century.
Explanation
The text lists: 'Notable among their accounts are those of an Italian trader named Nicolo de Conti, an ambassador named Abdur Razzaq sent by the ruler of Persia, a merchant named Afanasii Nikitin from Russia, all of whom visited the city in the fifteenth century, and those of Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz from Portugal, who came in the sixteenth century.'
What do buildings tell historians about the spread of ideas and cultural influences?
Hint: Think about how similarities or differences in building styles across regions can reveal historical connections.
Answer
By comparing architectural styles and features with those from other regions, historians can trace the spread of ideas and cultural influences.
Explanation
The text states: 'Buildings also tell us about the spread of ideas and cultural influences if we compare them with buildings in other places. They convey ideas which the builders or their patrons wished to project.'
When was Hampi declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO?
Hint: Check the Timeline 2 section for conservation landmarks.
Answer
Hampi received UNESCO World Heritage status in 1986, recognizing its outstanding universal value.
Explanation
Timeline 2 states: '1986 Hampi declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO'.
According to the text, what was one of Colin Mackenzie's motivations for studying Vijayanagara and collecting local histories?
Hint: His role was related to British colonial administration.
Answer
Mackenzie aimed to understand India's past, institutions, laws, and customs to facilitate British governance of the colony.
Explanation
The text states: 'He embarked on collecting local histories and surveying historic sites in order to better understand India’s past and make governance of the colony easier. He says that “it struggled long under the miseries of bad management … before the South came under the benign influence of the British government”. By studying Vijayanagara, Mackenzie believed that the East India Company could gain “much useful information on many of these institutions, laws and customs whose influence still prevails among the various Tribes of Natives forming the general mass of the population to this day”.'
What term did contemporaries use to describe the Vijayanagara Empire?
Hint: It's a regional term for the empire.
Answer
Contemporaries referred to the Vijayanagara Empire as the 'karnataka samrajyamu'.
Explanation
The text in a sidebar states: 'While historians use the term Vijayanagara Empire, contemporaries described it as the karnataka samrajyamu.'
How did the arrival of the Portuguese impact the trade and politics of the Vijayanagara period?
Hint: Focus on their technological advantage and new presence.
Answer
The Portuguese, with their advanced military technology like muskets, established trading and military stations, significantly influencing the regional politics.
Explanation
The text states: 'From 1498 other actors appeared on the scene. These were the Portuguese, who arrived on the west coast of the subcontinent and attempted to establish trading and military stations. Their superior military technology, especially the use of muskets, enabled them to become important players in the tangled politics of the period.'
What did 'Gajapati' literally mean, referring to a powerful ruling lineage in Orissa?
Hint: This title relates to a large, powerful animal.
Answer
'Gajapati' literally translates to 'lord of elephants', signifying their military power.
Explanation
The text in a sidebar states: 'Gajapati literally means lord of elephants. This was the name of a ruling lineage that was very powerful in Orissa in the fifteenth century.'
Despite religious differences, what indicates that relations between the Sultans and the rayas were not always hostile?
Hint: Look for instances of mutual involvement in internal affairs.
Answer
Examples like Krishnadeva Raya supporting Sultanate claimants and the Sultan of Bijapur intervening in Vijayanagara's succession disputes demonstrate a complex, often cooperative, relationship beyond simple hostility.
Explanation
The text states: 'relations between the Sultans and the rayas were not always or inevitably hostile, in spite of religious differences. Krishnadeva Raya, for example, supported some claimants to power in the Sultanates and took pride in the title “establisher of the Yavana kingdom”. Similarly, the Sultan of Bijapur intervened to resolve succession disputes in Vijayanagara following the death of Krishnadeva Raya.'
What was the Hiriya canal primarily used for?
Hint: This canal connected the river to a specific area for cultivation.
Answer
The Hiriya canal drew water from the Tungabhadra river to irrigate the agricultural valley, essential for sustaining the city.
Explanation
The text states: 'One of the most prominent waterworks to be seen among the ruins is the Hiriya canal. This canal drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra and irrigated the cultivated valley that separated the “sacred centre” from the “urban core”.'
The decision to incorporate agricultural tracts within the fortified area of Vijayanagara suggests a strategic response to which common medieval siege tactic?
Hint: Consider the duration of medieval sieges and their impact on resources.
Answer
By enclosing agricultural land, Vijayanagara's rulers aimed to counter the strategy of starving a city during prolonged sieges, ensuring food supply for its inhabitants.
Explanation
The text explicitly asks this question and answers: 'Why do you think agricultural tracts were incorporated within the fortified area? Often, the objective of medieval sieges was to starve the defenders into submission. These sieges could last for several months and sometimes even years. Normally rulers tried to be prepared for such situations by building large granaries within fortified areas. The rulers of Vijayanagara adopted a more expensive and elaborate strategy of protecting the agricultural belt itself.'
How did the 16th-century Portuguese traveller Barbosa describe the houses of ordinary people in Vijayanagara?
Hint: Focus on the description of common dwellings, which contrasts with the grand stone structures.
Answer
Barbosa described the ordinary houses as thatched but well-built and organized by occupation along streets, despite their perishable materials.
Explanation
The text quotes Barbosa: 'The other houses of the people are thatched, but nonetheless well built and arranged according to occupations, in long streets with many open places.'
What does the presence of numerous shrines and small temples dotted throughout the urban core suggest about the prevalence of cults in Vijayanagara?
Hint: Consider the implications of many small religious structures in various places.
Answer
The widespread distribution of various shrines and temples indicates a diverse religious landscape, likely catering to and supported by different communities within the city.
Explanation
The text states: 'Field surveys indicate that the entire area was dotted with numerous shrines and small temples, pointing to the prevalence of a variety of cults, perhaps supported by different communities.'
The 'royal centre' of Vijayanagara is described as including over 60 temples alongside palaces. What can be inferred about the nature of royal authority from this observation?
Hint: Consider the dual function of temples in connection to rulers.
Answer
The integration of numerous temples within the royal centre signifies that rulers actively used religious patronage to legitimize their rule and reinforce their divine connection.
Explanation
The text explicitly states: 'Clearly, the patronage of temples and cults was important for rulers who were trying to establish and legitimise their authority through association with the divinities housed in the shrines.'
What was a key difference in construction material between the temples and the secular buildings (palaces) in Vijayanagara?
Hint: Think about why more temples survive than palaces.
Answer
Temples were built entirely of durable masonry, whereas secular palaces often had superstructures made of perishable materials like wood, explaining why fewer palace structures survive intact.
Explanation
The text states: 'One difference between these structures and temples is that the latter were constructed entirely of masonry, while the superstructure of the secular buildings was made of perishable materials.'
Which local mother goddess is associated with the sacred hills of Vijayanagara and is believed to have performed penance to marry Virupaksha?
Hint: Her name is also linked to the common name of the ruins.
Answer
Pampadevi, the local mother goddess, is traditionally linked to the sacred hills and her marriage to Virupaksha is celebrated annually.
Explanation
The text states: 'Other traditions suggest that Pampadevi, the local mother goddess, did penance in these hills in order to marry Virupaksha, the guardian deity of the kingdom, also recognised as a form of Shiva.'
The introduction of the worship of Vitthala (a form of Vishnu generally worshipped in Maharashtra) in Karnataka by Vijayanagara rulers indicates what about their imperial culture?
Hint: Consider the implications of incorporating a deity from another region.
Answer
The adoption of Vitthala worship exemplifies the Vijayanagara rulers' strategy of integrating diverse regional traditions into their broader imperial culture, fostering wider appeal and legitimacy.
Explanation
The text explains: 'Here, the principal deity was Vitthala, a form of Vishnu generally worshipped in Maharashtra. The introduction of the worship of the deity in Karnataka is another indication of the ways in which the rulers of Vijayanagara drew on different traditions to create an imperial culture.'
No comments:
Post a Comment