11 NCERT CBSE - Political Theory 3. The Concept and Dimensions of Equality
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Theme Analysis
Main ThemeThe Concept and Dimensions of Equality
Subject CategoryPolitical Theory
Key Concepts
Question FocusQuestions are weighted towards the main theme and core concepts. Peripheral facts like specific dates or detailed statistics (as noted in the text) are avoided. Difficulty is mixed between 'Remember' and 'Understand' levels, suitable for high school students. Each MCQ has four plausible options, a hint, and an explanation for learning mode.
What is the fundamental idea invoked by the concept of equality as a political ideal?
Hint: Think about the core principle that underlies universal human rights.
Answer
The concept of equality as a political ideal invokes the idea that all human beings have an equal worth.
Explanation
The text states, 'As a political ideal the concept of equality invokes the idea that all human beings have an equal worth regardless of their colour, gender, race, or nationality. It maintains that human beings deserve equal consideration and respect because of their common humanity.'
Why is 'common humanity' a crucial notion behind the concept of equality?
Hint: Consider what 'common humanity' inherently grants to all people.
Answer
Common humanity is crucial because it is the notion that lies behind universal human rights and the demand for equal consideration and respect.
Explanation
The text explains, 'It is this notion of a shared humanity that lies behind, for instance, the notions of universal human rights or 'crimes against humanity'.' This shared humanity dictates that all individuals deserve equal consideration and respect.
Which historical event used 'Liberty, Equality and Fraternity' as a rallying slogan?
Hint: Recall the 18th-century European revolution mentioned in the text.
Answer
The French revolutionaries used the slogan 'Liberty, Equality and Fraternity'.
Explanation
The text explicitly states: 'In the eighteenth century, the French revolutionaries used the slogan 'Liberty, Equality and Fraternity' to revolt against the landed feudal aristocracy and the monarchy.'
The text highlights a paradox regarding equality. What is it?
Hint: Consider the contrast between belief and reality presented in the chapter.
Answer
The paradox is that almost everyone accepts the ideal of equality, yet inequality is widely visible.
Explanation
The text states, 'Thus we face a paradox : almost everyone accepts the ideal of equality, yet almost everywhere we encounter inequality.'
Which of the following does the commitment to the ideal of equality NOT imply?
Hint: Think about whether equality means everyone must be identical in abilities or outcomes.
Answer
The commitment to equality does not imply the elimination of all forms of differences.
Explanation
The text clarifies, 'The commitment to the ideal of equality does not imply the elimination of all forms of differences. It merely suggests that the treatment we receive and the opportunities we enjoy must not be pre-determined by birth or social circumstance.'
What are 'natural inequalities' according to political theory?
Hint: Consider differences that are inherent to individuals from birth.
Answer
Natural inequalities are those that emerge between people as a result of their different capabilities and talents.
Explanation
The text defines natural inequalities as 'those that emerge between people as a result of their different capabilities and talents.' These are generally assumed to be unalterable characteristics people are born with.
How are 'socially-produced inequalities' described in the text?
Hint: Think about inequalities that are created by societal structures or human actions.
Answer
Socially-produced inequalities emerge as a consequence of inequalities of opportunity or the exploitation of some groups in a society by others.
Explanation
The text states, 'Socially-produced inequalities which emerge as a consequence of inequalities of opportunity or the exploitation of some groups in a society by others.' It further notes these are created by society and reflect societal values.
Why is the distinction between natural and socially-produced inequalities not always clear or self-evident?
Hint: Consider how historical prejudices can mask the true origin of differences.
Answer
The distinction is not always clear because when certain inequalities have existed over a long period, they may appear justifiable as natural.
Explanation
The text notes, 'For instance, when certain inequalities in the treatment of people have existed over a long period of time they may appear to us as justifiable because they are based on natural inequalities... For example, women were for long described as 'the weaker sex'...' These were later recognized as social constructs.
How have advances in medical science and technology impacted the perception of 'natural' differences?
Hint: Think about how assistive technologies can change the capabilities of individuals with disabilities.
Answer
Advances in medical science and technology have helped many disabled people to function effectively, showing that some 'natural' differences need no longer be seen as unalterable.
Explanation
The text explains, 'Another problem which arises with the idea of natural differences is that some differences which could be considered natural need no longer be seen as unalterable. For instance, advances in medical science and technologies have helped many disabled people to function effectively in society.'
What kind of inequalities are of primary concern to advocates of equality today?
Hint: Focus on the inequalities that are outside an individual's control.
Answer
Advocates of equality are primarily concerned with inequalities operating on account of the family or circumstance in which a person is born.
Explanation
The text states, 'many theorists today differentiate between inequality arising from our choices and inequalities operating on account of the family or circumstance in which a person is born. It is the latter that is a source of concern to advocates of equality and which they wish to minimise and eliminate.'
Which of the following are the three main dimensions of equality highlighted by thinkers and ideologies?
Hint: The chapter explicitly names these three categories as central to understanding equality.
Answer
The three main dimensions of equality are political, economic, and social.
Explanation
The text clearly identifies 'three main dimensions of equality namely, political, social and economic' as central to achieving a more just society.
What does political equality typically include in democratic societies?
Hint: Think about fundamental rights associated with citizenship in a democracy.
Answer
Political equality normally includes granting equal citizenship to all members of the state, bringing with it basic rights such as the right to vote, freedom of expression, movement, and association.
Explanation
The text states, 'In democratic societies political equality would normally include granting equal citizenship to all the members of the state. ...equal citizenship brings with it certain basic rights such as the right to vote, freedom of expression, movement and association and freedom of belief.'
Why is political and legal equality, by itself, often not sufficient to build a just and egalitarian society?
Hint: Consider the impact of factors beyond legal rights on people's lives.
Answer
Political and legal equality is often insufficient because considerable inequality can exist even with equal rights, due to differences in resources and opportunities in social and economic spheres.
Explanation
The text notes, 'We know that considerable inequality can exist even in countries which grant equal rights to all citizens. These inequalities are often the result of differences in the resources and opportunities which are available to citizens in the social and economic spheres.'
What does social equality primarily require, beyond political equality?
Hint: Think about what enables people to compete fairly in society.
Answer
Social equality requires equality of opportunities and guaranteed minimum conditions of life, such as adequate health care and education.
Explanation
The text states, 'the pursuit of equality requires that people belonging to different groups and communities also have a fair and equal chance to compete for those goods and opportunities. For this, it is necessary to minimise the effects of social and economic inequalities and guarantee certain minimum conditions of life to all the members of the society — adequate health care, the opportunity for good education, adequate nourishment and a minimum wage...'
In the context of economic equality, what is considered dangerous for a society?
Hint: Consider what happens when wealth and power become concentrated and static across generations.
Answer
Inequalities which are entrenched, that is, which remain relatively untouched over generations, are considered dangerous for a society.
Explanation
The text warns, 'Inequalities which are entrenched, that is, which remain relatively untouched over generations, are more dangerous for a society. If in a society certain classes of people have enjoyed considerable wealth, and the power which goes with it, over generations, the society would become divided between those classes and others who have remained poor over generations. Over time such class differences can give rise to resentment and violence.'
What is the 'first step' towards bringing about equality?
Hint: Think about what legal and customary barriers prevent equality.
Answer
The first step towards bringing about equality is ending the formal system of inequality and privileges.
Explanation
The text clearly states, 'The first step towards bringing about equality is, of course, ending the formal system of inequality and privileges. Social, economic and political inequalities all over the world have been protected by customs and legal systems...'
Why is 'equality through differential treatment' sometimes necessary to realize the principle of equality?
Hint: Consider how specific accommodations can level the playing field for different groups.
Answer
Differential treatment is sometimes necessary to ensure that people with existing disadvantages can enjoy equal rights, such as providing ramps for disabled people or special protection for women working at night.
Explanation
The text explains, 'Sometimes it is necessary to treat people differently in order to ensure that they can enjoy equal rights. Certain differences between people may have to be taken into account for this purpose. For instance, disabled people may justifiably demand special ramps... Or women working in call centres at night may need special protection...'
What is the primary purpose of 'affirmative action' policies?
Hint: Think about the historical context and the aim of these policies.
Answer
Affirmative action policies are primarily designed to correct the cumulative effect of past inequalities.
Explanation
The text states, 'Most policies of affirmative action are thus designed to correct the cumulative effect of past inequalities.' It aims to minimize and eliminate entrenched forms of social inequalities.
Which of the following is an argument used to defend affirmative action policies like reservations?
Hint: Consider the rationale for providing special assistance to disadvantaged groups.
Answer
Affirmative action is defended on the ground that certain groups, victims of social prejudice and discrimination, need special protection and help to compete on equal terms.
Explanation
The text mentions, 'The policy has been defended on the ground that certain groups have been victims of social prejudice and discrimination in the form of exclusion and segregation. These communities who have suffered in the past and been denied equal opportunities cannot be immediately expected to compete with others on equal terms. Therefore, in the interest of creating an egalitarian and just society they need to be given special protection and help.'
What is a common argument raised by critics against affirmative action policies?
Hint: Think about the concerns regarding 'fairness' and 'equal treatment' when special provisions are made.
Answer
Critics argue that reservations are a form of reverse discrimination and unfairly deny other sections of society their right to equal treatment.
Explanation
The text states, 'Critics of positive discrimination, particularly policies of reservations, thus invoke the principle of equality to argue against such policies. They contend that any provision of reservations or quotas for the deprived in admissions for higher education or jobs is unfair as it arbitrarily denies other sections of society their right to equal treatment. They maintain that reservations are a form of reverse discrimination...'
What is the core belief of Feminism as a political doctrine?
Hint: Recall the fundamental aim of the feminist movement.
Answer
Feminism is a political doctrine of equal rights for women and men, believing that inequalities are neither natural nor necessary and can be altered.
Explanation
The text defines Feminism as 'a political doctrine of equal rights for women and men. Feminists are those men and women who believe that many of the inequalities we see in society between men and women are neither natural nor necessary and can be altered so that both women and men can lead free and equal lives.'
According to Feminists, what is 'patriarchy'?
Hint: Think about the societal system that feminists identify as a source of gender inequality.
Answer
Patriarchy refers to a social, economic, and cultural system that values men more than women and gives men power over women.
Explanation
The text explains, 'According to feminists, inequality between men and women in society is the result of patriarchy. This term refers to a social, economic and cultural system that values men more than women and gives men power over women.'
What is the root cause of entrenched inequality, according to Karl Marx?
Hint: Recall the economic system that Marx critiqued.
Answer
According to Karl Marx, the root cause of entrenched inequality was private ownership of important economic resources.
Explanation
The text states, 'Marx was an important nineteenth century thinker who argued that the root cause of entrenched inequality was private ownership of important economic resources such as oil, or land, or forests, as well as other forms of property.'
How do Marxists and socialists propose to tackle inequality in society?
Hint: Connect their view on the root cause of inequality with their proposed solution.
Answer
Marxists and socialists feel that to tackle inequality, society needs to go beyond providing equal opportunities and try to ensure public control over essential resources and forms of property.
Explanation
The text explains, 'Therefore, to tackle inequality in society we need to go beyond providing equal opportunities and try and ensure public control over essential resources and forms of property.'
What principle do Liberal theories uphold as the most efficient and fair way of distributing resources and rewards?
Hint: Think about the economic system that liberals typically favor.
Answer
Liberals uphold the principle of competition as the most efficient and fair way of distributing resources and rewards in society.
Explanation
The text states, 'Liberal theories... uphold the principle of competition as the most efficient and fair way of distributing resources and rewards in society.'
For Liberals, what is the main problem regarding inequality?
Hint: Consider what kind of inequalities liberals believe hinder individual potential.
Answer
For liberals, the problem is not inequality as such, but unjust and entrenched inequalities which prevent individuals from developing their capabilities.
Explanation
The text clarifies, 'The problem for liberals is not inequality as such, but unjust and entrenched inequalities which prevent individuals from developing their capabilities.'
Which socialist thinker identified five kinds of inequalities that need to be fought against simultaneously?
Hint: The text mentions a specific Indian socialist thinker in the 'Socialism' section.
Answer
Rammanohar Lohia identified five kinds of inequalities that need to be fought against simultaneously.
Explanation
The text states, 'In India the eminent socialist thinker Rammanohar Lohia, identified five kinds of inequalities that need to be fought against simultaneously: inequality between man and woman, inequality based on skin colour, caste-based inequality, colonial rule of some countries over others, and, of course, economic inequality.'
When does a society NOT necessarily become unequal, even if some individuals are more successful than others?
Hint: Consider the distinction between unequal outcomes due to choice/talent versus unequal access to opportunities.
Answer
A society is not necessarily considered unequal just because some people become more successful in their chosen careers due to different talents and skills, provided they had equal opportunities.
Explanation
The text states, 'They may also have different talents and skills which results in some being more successful in their chosen careers than others. But just because only some become ace cricketers or successful lawyers, it does not follow that the society should be considered unequal. In other words, it is not the lack of equality of status or wealth or privilege that is significant but the inequalities in people’s access to such basic goods, as education, health care, safe housing, that make for an unequal and unjust society.'
What is the demand for 'a level playing field' often made in the context of political equality?
Hint: Think about what ensures fair competition and participation for everyone.
Answer
The demand for 'a level playing field' refers to a demand for equal opportunities in the social and economic spheres, as legal rights alone are insufficient.
Explanation
The text explains that despite legal rights, 'considerable inequality can exist... These inequalities are often the result of differences in the resources and opportunities which are available to citizens in the social and economic spheres. For this reason a demand is often made for equal opportunities, or for 'a level playing field'.'
What does the Indian Constitution prohibit to establish formal equality?
Hint: Recall the fundamental anti-discrimination principles enshrined in many modern constitutions.
Answer
The Indian Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth, and abolishes untouchability.
Explanation
The text states, 'This is what our Constitution does. The Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. Our Constitution also abolishes the practice of untouchability.'
What is the assumption behind affirmative action being a 'temporary or time-bound measure'?
Hint: Think about the ultimate goal of affirmative action: to achieve genuine equality.
Answer
The assumption is that special consideration will enable disadvantaged communities to overcome existing disadvantages and then compete with others on equal terms.
Explanation
The text clarifies, 'Special assistance in the form of affirmative action is expected to be a temporary or time-bound measure. The assumption is that special consideration will enable these communities to overcome the existing disadvantages and then compete with others on equal terms.'
Why might giving prime ministers or army generals a special official rank and status not necessarily go against the notion of equality?
Hint: Consider the role of functional differences in society and the condition for their acceptance.
Answer
Such differences in status are acceptable if they arise from a necessary division of work and functions for society's smooth functioning, provided their privileges are not misused.
Explanation
The text states, 'The smooth functioning of society requires division of work and functions and people often enjoy different status and rewards on account of it. At times these differences of treatment may appear acceptable or even necessary. For instance, we usually do not feel that giving prime ministers, or army generals, a special official rank and status goes against the notion of equality, provided their privileges are not misused.'
Which of the following is an example of an inequality that most people today would find unjust, despite historical justifications?
Hint: Recall the example of Stephen Hawking and the discussion about overcoming 'natural' limitations with support.
Answer
Denying disabled people necessary help or a fair reward on the grounds of natural incapability would be considered unjust today.
Explanation
The text discusses how medical advances help disabled people and concludes, 'It would seem unjust to most people today if disabled people are denied necessary help to overcome the effects of their disability or a fair reward for their work on the grounds that they are naturally less capable.'
What is a special problem regarding equal opportunities in India, as mentioned in the text?
Hint: Think about traditional societal practices that can limit opportunities, especially for certain groups like women.
Answer
In India, a special problem regarding equal opportunities comes not just from lack of facilities but from some of the customs which may prevail in different parts of the country or among different groups.
Explanation
The text highlights, 'In India, a special problem regarding equal opportunities comes not just from lack of facilities but from some of the customs which may prevail in different parts of country, or among different groups. Women, for instance, may not enjoy equal rights of inheritance in some groups, or there may be social prohibitions regarding their taking part in certain kinds of activities, or they may even be discouraged from obtaining higher education.'
According to feminists, what is the distinction between 'sex' and 'gender'?
Hint: Recall how feminists differentiate between inherent biological traits and societal expectations.
Answer
'Sex' refers to biological differences between men and women, while 'gender' determines the different roles they play in society.
Explanation
The text explains, 'Feminists questions this way of thinking by making a distinction between 'sex' i.e. biological difference between men and women, and 'gender' which determines the different roles that men and women play in society.'
Unlike socialists, what do liberals NOT believe about political, economic, and social inequalities?
Hint: Consider how liberals view the independence of different spheres of inequality.
Answer
Unlike socialists, liberals do not believe that political, economic, and social inequalities are necessarily linked.
Explanation
The text states, 'Unlike socialists, liberals do not believe that political, economic and social inequalities are necessarily linked. They maintain that inequalities in each of these spheres should be tackled appropriately.'
Why are liberals usually wary of deviations from the norm of identical treatment?
Hint: Think about the historical abuses associated with treating groups differently.
Answer
Liberals are wary of deviations from identical treatment because differential treatment for different communities was historically part of oppressive systems like the caste system and apartheid.
Explanation
The text notes, 'Since differential treatment for different communities was part and parcel of the caste system and practices like apartheid, liberals are usually very wary of deviations from the norm of identical treatment.'
What caution must be exercised when using differential treatment to promote equality?
Hint: Consider the potential negative consequences if differential treatment is misused.
Answer
Caution must be exercised to see that differential treatment does not yield new structures of dominance and oppression, or become a means for some dominant groups to reassert special privileges and power in society.
Explanation
The text warns, 'Caution must, however, be exercised to see that differential treatment does not yield new structures of dominance and oppression, or become a means for some dominant groups to reassert special privileges and power in society. Differential treatment is intended and justified only as a means to promoting a just and egalitarian society.'
What distinguishes an 'unequal and unjust society' regarding access to basic goods?
Hint: Focus on the fundamental resources and services that all citizens should ideally be able to access.
Answer
An unequal and unjust society is distinguished by inequalities in people's access to basic goods such as education, healthcare, and safe housing.
Explanation
The text states, 'it is not the lack of equality of status or wealth or privilege that is significant but the inequalities in people’s access to such basic goods, as education, health care, safe housing, that make for an unequal and unjust society.'
How did colonial masters justify institutions like slavery for Black people in Africa?
Hint: Recall the prejudiced 'natural' assessments used to rationalize social inequalities.
Answer
Colonial masters justified slavery by considering Black people of lesser intelligence, child-like, and better at manual work, sports, and music.
Explanation
The text provides this as an example of how socially-produced inequalities were justified as natural: 'Black people in Africa were considered by their colonial masters to be of lesser intelligence, child-like, and better at manual work, sports and music. This belief was used to justify institutions like slavery.'
What happens in society when equality of opportunity does not exist?
Hint: Consider the societal cost of denying individuals the chance to develop their abilities.
Answer
When equality of opportunity does not exist, a huge pool of potential talent tends to be wasted in society.
Explanation
The text states, 'Where equality of opportunity does not exist a huge pool of potential talent tends to be wasted in society.'
What is equality described as in relation to faiths and religions?
Hint: Think about the common moral teachings across various religions.
Answer
Equality is described as implicit in all faiths and religions which proclaim all human beings to be the creation of God.
Explanation
The text states, 'It is implicit in all faiths and religions which proclaim all human beings to be the creation of God.'
Why did women, in the nineteenth century, realize they needed 'special facilities' even after gaining equal rights to work?
Hint: Consider what practical support helps women balance work and family responsibilities.
Answer
Women realized they needed special facilities like maternity leave and crèches to seriously compete for jobs and enjoy a professional and personal life, thus genuinely exercising their rights.
Explanation
The text states, 'However, as they entered the job market they realised that women required special facilities in order to exercise these rights. For instance, they required some provision for maternity leave and crèches in the workplace. Without special considerations of this kind, they could not seriously compete for jobs or enjoy a successful professional and personal life. They needed, in other words, sometimes to be treated differently if they are to enjoy the same rights as men.'
What specific aspect of the division of labor do feminists question?
Hint: Recall the 'public/private' distinction and the 'double burden' mentioned in the text.
Answer
Feminists question the division of labor where women are solely responsible for 'private' and 'domestic' matters while men are responsible for work in the 'public' domain.
Explanation
The text states, 'Patriarchy produces a division of labour by which women are supposed to be responsible for 'private' and 'domestic' matters while men are responsible for work in the 'public' domain. Feminists question this distinction by pointing out that in fact most women are also active in the 'public' domain.'
What is the primary consideration when differential or special treatment is considered to realize the goal of equality?
Hint: Remember the overarching goal when making accommodations for certain groups.
Answer
The primary consideration for differential or special treatment is to promote equality.
Explanation
The text specifies, 'While reflecting on the issue of equality, a distinction must also be made between treating everyone in an identical manner and treating everyone as equal. The latter may on occasions need differential treatment but in all such cases the primary consideration is to promote equality.'
What does the idea of equality imply about rights and opportunities for all people?
Hint: Consider the fundamental entitlements that equality guarantees to individuals.
Answer
The concept of equality implies that all people, as human beings, are entitled to the same rights and opportunities to develop their skills and talents, and to pursue their goals and ambitions.
Explanation
The text states, 'The concept of equality implies that all people, as human beings, are entitled to the same rights and opportunities to develop their skills and talents, and to pursue their goals and ambitions.'
Why is it considered unfair if a child born in a slum is denied nutritious food or good education?
Hint: Connect the situation to the principle that opportunities should not be predetermined by birth or social status.
Answer
It is considered unfair because their disadvantage (denial of food/education) is due to their social circumstance (born in a slum), not their fault.
Explanation
The text states, 'For instance, if a child born in a slum is denied nutritious food or good education through no fault of his/her own, it may appear unfair to us.' This highlights that such inequalities are socially produced and unjust.
What was a common argument among socialists during Rammanohar Lohia's time, which he challenged?
Hint: Recall Lohia's broader view on fighting various forms of inequality simultaneously.
Answer
During Lohia's time, it was common for socialists to argue that class inequality was the only form of inequality worth struggling against, which Lohia challenged by identifying multiple independent inequalities.
Explanation
The text mentions, 'But during Lohia’s time it was common for the socialists to argue that class inequality was the only form of inequality worth struggling against. Other inequalities did not matter or would end automatically if economic inequality could be ended. Lohia argued that each of these inequalities had independent roots and had to be fought separately and simultaneously.'
What is the key distinction relevant to the debate on affirmative action, according to the text?
Hint: Consider how the state's broad goals might differ from individual entitlements.
Answer
The relevant distinction is between equality as a guiding principle of state policy and equal rights of individuals.
Explanation
The text states, 'In the context of this debate, it is relevant to draw a distinction between equality as a guiding principle of state policy and equal rights of individuals.'
What is one way of measuring the degree of economic inequality in a society?
Hint: Think about indicators related to wealth and income disparities.
Answer
One way of measuring the degree of economic inequality is to estimate the number of people who live below the poverty line.
Explanation
The text offers, 'One way of measuring the degree of economic inequality in a society would be to measure the relative difference between the richest and poorest groups. Another way could be to estimate the number of people who live below the poverty line.'
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