11 NCERT CBSE Sociology Sociological Research Methods and Objectivity
Theme Analysis
Main ThemeSociological Research Methods and Objectivity
Subject CategorySociology
Key Concepts
Question FocusThe questions cover the core distinctions between sociology and other sciences, the challenges of objectivity, and the characteristics, strengths, and limitations of the two primary research methods discussed: Participant Observation and Surveys. A mix of Bloom's taxonomy levels is used, from direct recall to application and analysis, with plausible distractors for MCQs. Emphasis is placed on conceptual understanding and application rather than rote memorization.
What is the crucial element that differentiates a sociologist from a lay person, allowing them to be called a social scientist?
Hint: Think about what makes any discipline 'scientific'.
Answer
The method or procedures through which they acquire knowledge.
Explanation
The text states, 'As with all scientific disciplines, the crucial element here is method, or the procedures through which knowledge is gathered. For in the final analysis, sociologists can claim to be different from lay persons not because of how much they know or what they know, but because of how they acquire their knowledge.'
In the context of scientific knowledge-gathering, what does 'methodology' primarily refer to?
Hint: The text clarifies the distinction between 'method' and 'methodology'.
Answer
The study of method, encompassing general problems of scientific knowledge-gathering.
Explanation
The document explains that while 'method' refers to a technique or procedure, 'methodology' actually refers to the study of method, dealing with general problems of scientific knowledge-gathering that go beyond any one particular method.
Why is achieving 'objectivity' more challenging in social sciences like sociology compared to natural sciences like geology or botany?
Hint: Consider the relationship between the researcher and the researched subject in both fields.
Answer
Social scientists are part of the world they study, leading to potential personal biases.
Explanation
The text states, 'However, the geologist and the botanist are not themselves part of the world they study... By contrast, social scientists study the world in which they themselves live — the social world of human relations. This creates special problems for objectivity in a social science like sociology.' This direct involvement can lead to personal biases influencing the research.
A sociologist studying a religious community rigorously examines their own preconceived notions and feelings about that community before and during their research. What is this technique called?
Hint: This technique involves looking at one's own work through the eyes of others or critically examining one's own biases.
Answer
Self-reflexivity
Explanation
The document describes 'self-reflexivity' (or 'reflexivity') as the technique where a sociologist rigorously and continuously examines their own ideas and feelings about the subject of research, trying to take an outsider’s perspective on their own work and consciously adopt the point of view of others.
Beyond personal bias, what is another significant problem for objectivity in sociology, according to the text?
Hint: Think about how different individuals might perceive the same event or concept.
Answer
The presence of multiple, competing versions or interpretations of reality in the social world.
Explanation
The text states, 'Another problem with objectivity in sociology is the fact that, generally, there are many versions of the ‘truth’ in the social world. Things look different from different vantage points, and so the social world typically involves many competing versions or interpretations of reality.'
What does it mean for sociology to be a 'multi-paradigmatic' science?
Hint: Consider the different theoretical perspectives within sociology.
Answer
Competing and mutually incompatible schools of thought coexist within the discipline.
Explanation
The text explains, 'Like its sister social sciences, sociology too is a ‘multi-paradigmatic’ science. This means that competing and mutually incompatible schools of thought coexist within the discipline.'
How is the concept of objectivity viewed in contemporary social science, according to the text?
Hint: The text suggests a more dynamic understanding of objectivity.
Answer
It is seen as the goal of a continuous, ongoing process rather than an achieved end result.
Explanation
The text states, 'In fact, the old notion of objectivity is widely considered to be an outdated perspective. Social scientists no longer believe that the traditional notion of an ‘objective, disinterested’ social science is attainable... It means that objectivity has to be thought of as the goal of a continuous, ongoing process rather than an already achieved end result.'
Which type of research method deals with countable or measurable variables like proportions and averages?
Hint: Think about what 'quantify' means.
Answer
Quantitative methods
Explanation
The text distinguishes between quantitative and qualitative methods, stating that 'the former deals in countable or measurable variables (proportions, averages, and the like)'.
What kind of phenomena do qualitative methods primarily deal with?
Hint: Qualitative research focuses on depth and understanding meaning.
Answer
Abstract and hard-to-measure phenomena like attitudes and emotions.
Explanation
The text defines qualitative methods as those that 'deal with more abstract and hard to measure phenomena like attitudes, emotions and so on.'
Which of the following methods is designed to produce 'fresh' or 'primary' data?
Hint: Primary data is collected directly by the researcher for their specific study.
Answer
Interviews with individuals.
Explanation
The text explains that methods relying on 'secondary' data use already existing material (documents, records), while methods producing 'primary' data generate fresh information. It explicitly states, 'Thus historical methods typically rely on secondary material found in archives, while interviews generate primary data, and so on.'
Participant observation and interviews are generally considered examples of which type of method?
Hint: These methods typically involve smaller, intimate settings.
Answer
Micro methods
Explanation
The text categorizes methods by scale: 'Micro methods are designed to work in small intimate settings usually with a single researcher; thus the interview and participant observation are thought of as micro methods.'
What is the most important consideration when choosing a research method in sociology?
Hint: The effectiveness of a tool depends on the task at hand.
Answer
Whether the method chosen is appropriate for answering the specific research question.
Explanation
The text states, 'It is thus futile to argue about the superiority or inferiority of different methods. It is more important to ask if the method chosen is the appropriate one for answering the question that is being asked.'
What is the term for the process of using multiple methods to study the same research problem from different vantage points?
Hint: This term suggests looking at a problem from multiple angles to pinpoint an understanding.
Answer
Triangulation
Explanation
The text describes 'triangulation' as 'a process of reiterating or pinpointing something from different directions' by advocating the use of multiple methods to bear on the same research problem.
A key characteristic of participant observation, distinguishing it from surveys or interviews, is that it involves:
Hint: Think about the 'participant' aspect of this method.
Answer
A long period of intimate interaction and immersion with the subjects of research.
Explanation
The text states, 'Unlike other methods of primary data collection like surveys or interviews, field work involves a long period of interaction with the subjects of research. Typically, the sociologist or social anthropologist spends many months — usually about a year or sometimes more — living among the people being studied as one of them.'
What is the overall goal of 'participant observation' fieldwork, as described in the text?
Hint: The analogy of a child learning about the world is used.
Answer
To learn about the 'whole way of life' of a community.
Explanation
The text mentions that 'although the sociologist or anthropologist usually has specific areas of interest, the overall goal of ‘participant observation’ field work is to learn about the ‘whole way of life’ of a community.'
Before the late 19th and early 20th centuries, how did 'armchair scholars' in anthropology typically collect information about distant communities?
Hint: They collected 'second-hand accounts'.
Answer
From reports and descriptions written by travelers, missionaries, and colonial administrators.
Explanation
The text states that early anthropologists were 'armchair scholars' who 'collected and organised information about distant communities (which they had never themselves visited) available from the reports and descriptions written by travellers, missionaries, colonial administrators, soldiers and other ‘men on the spot’.'
Which anthropologist is widely credited with establishing field work as the distinctive method of social anthropology, partly due to his internment experience?
Hint: He spent a significant period in the Trobriand Islands.
Answer
Bronislaw Malinowski
Explanation
The text explicitly states, 'Bronislaw Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist settled in Britain, is widely believed to have established field work as the distinctive method of social anthropology' due to his experience in the Trobriand Islands.
Malinowski was convinced that anthropology would not progress beyond an intellectual hobby unless practitioners engaged in systematic first-hand observation. What was a crucial aspect of this observation?
Hint: Think about the immersive nature of his fieldwork.
Answer
It had to be done in context, with the anthropologist living among the people.
Explanation
Malinowski was convinced that 'this observation had to be done in context — that is, the anthropologist had to live among the native people and observe life as it happened rather than interviewing individual natives summoned to the town or outpost for this purpose.' He also stressed intensive language learning and avoiding interpreters.
What technique do anthropologists use, especially in the beginning stages of fieldwork, to understand the kinship system and structure of a community?
Hint: This involves creating family trees.
Answer
Constructing a genealogy of the community.
Explanation
The text states, 'One of the important techniques anthropologists use, specially in the beginning stages of their field work is to construct a genealogy of the community. This may be based on the information obtained in the census, but extends much further since it involves creating a family tree for individual members, and extending the family tree as far back as possible.'
In fieldwork, what term is used for the one or two people an anthropologist usually depends on for most of the information about a community?
Hint: These individuals act as teachers for the researcher.
Answer
Informants
Explanation
The text states, 'In doing this, the anthropologist usually depends on one or two people for most of the information. Such people are called ‘informants’ or ‘principal informants’; in the early days the term native informant was also used.'
How does sociological fieldwork typically differ from anthropological fieldwork, according to the text?
Hint: Consider the types of communities each discipline tends to study.
Answer
Sociological fieldwork differs not so much in content, but in context (where it is done) and emphasis.
Explanation
The text explains, 'Sociological field work differs not so much in its content — what is done during field-work — but in its context — where it is done — and in the distribution of emphasis across different areas or topics of research.' It notes that sociologists work among all sorts of communities, not just remote tribal ones.
William Foote Whyte's study *Street Corner Society* is an example of sociological fieldwork where he:
Hint: This is a classic example of participant observation in an urban setting.
Answer
Lived in an Italian-American slum for three and a half years, 'hanging out' with a street gang.
Explanation
The text describes William Foote Whyte's fieldwork: 'He lived in the area for three and half years ‘hanging out’ — just spending time together — with members of the gang or group, who were mostly poor unemployed youth, the first American-born generation in a community of immigrants.'
Why did village studies become a very important part of Indian sociology in the 1950s?
Hint: Consider the post-independence context of India.
Answer
They provided a subject of great interest in newly independent India, focusing on rural development.
Explanation
The text states, 'More than the methodological reasons, village studies were important because they provided Indian sociology with a subject that was of great interest in newly independent India. The government was interested in developing rural India. The national movement and specially Mahatma Gandhi had been actively involved in what were called ‘village uplift’ programmes.'
What is identified as probably the biggest disadvantage of participant observation fieldwork?
Hint: Think about the scope of research possible with a single scholar working intensively.
Answer
It can only cover a very small part of the world, making generalizability difficult.
Explanation
The text explicitly states, 'Field work by its very nature involves very long drawn out and intensive research usually by a single scholar working alone. As such, it can only cover a very small part of the world — generally a single village or small community. We can never be sure whether what the anthropologist or sociologist observed during fieldwork is really very common in the larger community... or whether it is exceptional. This is probably the biggest disadvantage of field work.'
Another limitation of fieldwork methods is the concern about whose voice is truly being heard. What is the potential risk highlighted by the text?
Hint: Consider the power dynamic in research and the researcher's role in documenting.
Answer
The anthropologist, consciously or unconsciously, may select and present information biased by their own perspective.
Explanation
The text notes, 'Another important limitation of field work method is that we are never sure whether it is the voice of the anthropologist we are hearing or that of the people being studied. Of course, the aim is to represent the views of the people being studied, but it is always possible that the anthropologist —whether consciously or unconsciously — is selecting what will be written down in his/her notes, and how it will be presented to the readers of his/her books or articles.'
To counter the one-sided relationship in fieldwork where the scholar speaks for 'the people', what have some scholars suggested?
Hint: This approach aims to make the research process more democratic.
Answer
More 'dialogic' formats, involving respondents directly in reviewing and commenting on the scholar's work.
Explanation
The text states, 'To counter this, some scholars have suggested more ‘dialogic’ formats — that is, ways of presenting field work results where the respondents and people can be more directly involved. In concrete terms, this involves translating the work of the scholar into the language of the community, and asking their opinion of it, and recording their responses.'
What is the primary purpose of a survey, as described in the text?
Hint: The word 'survey' itself implies a broad look.
Answer
To provide a comprehensive or wide-ranging overview of a subject based on information from a representative set of people.
Explanation
The text states, 'As the word itself suggests, a survey is an attempt to provide an overview. It is a comprehensive or wide-ranging perspective on some subject based on information obtained from a carefully chosen representative set of people.'
What is the main advantage of the survey method as a social scientific tool?
Hint: This is related to the concept of sampling.
Answer
It allows researchers to generalize results for a large population while studying only a small portion of it.
Explanation
The text highlights, 'The survey’s main advantage as a social scientific method is that it allows us to generalise results for a large population while actually studying only a small portion of this population.'
In survey research, what are the individuals who respond to questions asked by researchers usually referred to as?
Hint: They provide the 'response' to the survey questions.
Answer
Respondents
Explanation
The text states, 'Such people are usually referred to as ‘respondents’ — they respond to questions asked of them by the researchers.'
The principle of 'stratification' in sample selection means that:
Hint: This ensures the sample accurately reflects the diversity of the population.
Answer
All relevant sub-groups in the population should be recognized and represented in the sample.
Explanation
The text explains the first principle of sample selection: 'all the relevant sub-groups in the population should be recognised and represented in the sample. Most large populations are not homogenous — they belong to distinct sub-categories. This is called stratification.'
The principle of 'randomisation' in sample selection ensures that:
Hint: Think about fairness and avoiding intentional selection.
Answer
The actual unit chosen to be part of the sample is selected purely by chance.
Explanation
The text describes the second principle: 'the actual unit — i.e. person or village or household — should be based purely on chance. This is referred to as randomisation, which itself depends on the concept of probability.' It emphasizes that being chosen in the sample should be a matter of luck, like winning a lottery.
Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a common technique to ensure randomisation in sample selection?
Hint: A truly random selection avoids personal preference or familiarity.
Answer
Selecting households known to the survey team.
Explanation
The text lists 'drawing of lots (or lottery), rolling of dice, the use of random number tables... and more recently, random numbers generated by calculators or computers' as ways to ensure randomisation. It explicitly states, 'if we choose mostly middle class households, or households that we know, then the sample is again likely to be purposive' (not random).
What is the term for the small differences between the characteristics of a scientifically selected sample and the population it represents, which arise because a small sample stands for a large population?
Hint: This is also known as the margin of error.
Answer
Sampling error
Explanation
The text states, 'There may be small differences, but the chance of such deviations occuring can be specified. This is known as the margin of error, or sampling error. It arises not due to any mistakes made by researchers but because we are using a small sample to stand for a large population.'
The Indian population census, conducted every ten years, is described as a 'genuinely comprehensive survey'. What does this imply about its coverage?
Hint: A census aims for complete enumeration.
Answer
It includes every household and every person in India.
Explanation
The text notes that for the Indian census, 'we get a genuinely comprehensive survey in which every household in India and every one of the more than one billion people living in India get included.'
The alarming decline in the child sex ratio in India is presented as an example of a social issue that:
Hint: Consider whether a problem is apparent at the micro or macro level.
Answer
Is only visible at an aggregative level through methods like a census or large-scale survey.
Explanation
The text explains, 'The child sex ratio is an aggregate (or macro) variable that only becomes visible when you collate (or put together) statistics for large populations. We cannot tell by looking at individual families that there is such a severe problem... It is only by using methods like a census or large scale survey that the overall ratio for the community as a whole can be calculated and the problem can be identified.'
What is a major disadvantage of the survey method, despite its wide coverage?
Hint: Think about the trade-off between breadth and depth.
Answer
It is usually not possible to get in-depth information from respondents.
Explanation
The text states, 'Although it offers the possibility of wide coverage, this is at the cost of depth of coverage. It is usually not possible to get in-depth information from respondents as part of a large survey. Because of the large number of respondents, the time spent on each must be limited.'
What is one practical aspect of reflexivity and a claim to superiority of research methods, according to the text?
Hint: This allows for transparency and verification by others.
Answer
The formal citing of all sources of evidence and documentation of all procedures.
Explanation
The text notes, 'One of the practical aspects of reflexivity is the importance of carefully documenting whatever one is doing. Part of the claims to superiority of research methods lies in the documentation of all procedures and the formal citing of all sources of evidence.' This ensures others can retrace steps and verify conclusions.
Sociology is deeply interested in the lived experience of people. When studying social phenomena, what two points of view does the sociologist try to understand?
Hint: This relates to seeing the world through others' eyes.
Answer
The observable by the bystander and the opinions/feelings of the people involved (outsider's and insider's).
Explanation
The text states, 'the sociologist wants to know not only what is observable by the bystander, but also the opinions and feelings of the people involved... This need to understand both the outsider’s and the insider’s points of view is another reason why method is particularly important in sociology.'
A researcher wants to survey attitudes towards trade unions. According to the principle of stratification, which groups would be important to include in the sample?
Hint: Stratification requires representing all relevant sub-groups.
Answer
Workers, managers, and industrialists.
Explanation
The text gives this exact example: 'When researching attitudes towards trade unions it would be important to consider workers, managers and industrialists, and so on.' This ensures all relevant strata are represented.
Why should one always be suspicious of survey results where the size and design of the sample and the margin of error are not clearly specified?
Hint: This relates to the transparency and scientific rigor of the research.
Answer
Without this information, it is impossible to evaluate the findings and their representativeness.
Explanation
The 'Activity 4' box states, 'You must always be suspicious of surveys where these aspects of the research method are not clearly specified, because without them, it is not possible to evaluate the findings. Survey methods are often misused in the popular media: big claims are made on the basis of biased and unrepresentative sample.'
In participant observation fieldwork, what is the importance of keeping detailed field notes and a daily diary?
Hint: This is a core practice for recording data in qualitative research.
Answer
They document significant aspects of community life and observations for later analysis and reporting.
Explanation
The text emphasizes, 'Equally important are the detailed field notes that the anthropologist keeps during field-work; these notes have to written up every day without fail, and can be supplemented by, or take the form of, a daily diary.' They describe significant aspects of community life.
In India, what organization conducts sample surveys every year on topics like family expenditure, employment, and unemployment?
Hint: This is a government body responsible for official statistics.
Answer
The National Statistical Organisation (NSO)
Explanation
The text mentions, 'In India, the National Statistical Organisation (NSO) conducts sample surveys every year on the levels of family expenditure, employment and unemployment (and other subjects).'
One of the main strengths of participant observation is that it allows for the correction of initial impressions. Why is this possible?
Hint: Consider the duration of immersion in the community.
Answer
Because it involves a long period of full-time engagement with the field, unlike short, quick visits.
Explanation
The text states, 'Field work allows for the correction of initial impressions, which may often be mistaken or biased.' It further explains, 'Because s/he spends a long period in ‘full time’ engagement with the field, a participant observer can avoid many of the errors or biases that surveys, questionnaires or short term observation are inevitably subject to.'
Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a form in which survey questions may be asked and answered?
Hint: Surveys typically involve direct questioning.
Answer
Through direct observation of non-verbal cues without interaction.
Explanation
The text lists several forms: 'Often, they are asked orally during personal visits by the investigator, and sometimes through telephone conversations. Responses may also be sought in writing, to ‘questionnaires’ brought by investigators or sent through the post. Finally, with the increasing presence of computers and telecommunication technology, these days it is also possible for surveys to be conducted electronically.' Direct observation without interaction is characteristic of other methods, not typically surveys.
Why do sociologists explicitly mention features of their own social background that might be relevant as a possible source of bias?
Hint: This practice promotes transparency and critical engagement with the research.
Answer
To alert readers to the possibility of bias and allow them to mentally 'compensate' for it.
Explanation
The text explains, 'To deal with this possibility, sociologists explicitly mention those features of their own social background that might be relevant as a possible source of bias on the topic being researched. This alerts readers to the possibility of bias and allows them to mentally ‘compensate’ for it when reading the research study.'
If a researcher is interested in finding out the proportion of people in a country who support a new government policy, which method would be most appropriate and why?
Hint: Consider which method is best for broad, quantifiable data across a large group.
Answer
A survey, because it can generalize results to a large population through a representative sample.
Explanation
The text states, 'if one is interested in finding out whether most Indian families are still ‘joint families’, then a census or survey is the best method.' This applies to large-scale quantifiable opinions. Surveys are ideal for collecting data from a representative sample and generalizing results to a large population, which is necessary to determine national proportions of support.
If a sociologist wants to compare the status of women in joint and nuclear families in India, which methods are suggested as appropriate?
Hint: This question requires a deeper understanding of social dynamics than a simple count.
Answer
Interviews, case studies, or participant observation.
Explanation
The text says, 'However, if one wishes to compare the status of women in joint and nuclear families, then interviews, case studies or participant observation may all be appropriate methods.' These methods allow for qualitative depth needed to understand 'status'.
The text uses the model of a 'child' to describe how sociologists and anthropologists learn about their adoptive communities during participant observation. What does this analogy imply?
Hint: Think about how children learn comprehensively about their environment.
Answer
Researchers should be like children, always asking 'why' and 'what' to understand taken-for-granted aspects of community life.
Explanation
The text states, 'Indeed the model is that of the child: sociologists and anthropologists are supposed to learn everything about their adoptive communities in just the holistic way that small children learn about the world.' Later, it clarifies, 'This is the sense in which the anthropologist would be like a child, always asking why, what and so on' about things taken for granted by community members.
From which scientific disciplines did the term 'field work' originally originate?
Hint: Think about scientists who need to study their subjects outside a laboratory.
Answer
Natural sciences, especially botany, zoology, and geology.
Explanation
The text states, 'The term originated in the natural sciences, specially those like botany, zoology, geology etc. In these disciplines, scientists could not only work in the laboratory, they had to go out into ‘the field’ to learn about their subjects.'
What is the sociological implication of the fact that 'there are many versions of the ‘truth’ in the social world' and that 'things look different from different vantage points'?
Hint: Consider sociology's interest in understanding human perspectives.
Answer
Sociology often finds it unhelpful to judge which interpretation is 'true' or 'more correct', focusing instead on what people think and why.
Explanation
The text explains, 'There is no simple way of judging which particular interpretation is true or more correct, and often it is unhelpful to think in these terms. In fact, sociology tries not to judge in this way because it is really interested in what people think, and why they think what they think.'
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