12 NCERT CBSE History
Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society
Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Indian Society (10th-17th Century)
High School History | Comprehensive Assessment on Foreign Accounts of India
Lesson Summary & Overview
This lesson assessment explores the rich historical accounts of foreign travellers who visited the Indian subcontinent between the tenth and seventeenth centuries. Focusing on the detailed observations of Al-Biruni from Uzbekistan, Ibn Battuta from Morocco, and François Bernier from France, this material delves into their unique perceptions of Indian society, culture, economy, and political structures. Students will learn how these diverse perspectives, shaped by their own social and cultural backgrounds, offer invaluable insights into daily life, religious practices, urban centers, trade networks, and governance during different historical periods, particularly the Ghaznavid and Mughal eras.
The assessment covers critical aspects such as Al-Biruni's linguistic challenges and his analytical approach to the caste system, Ibn Battuta's fascination with the unfamiliar, including Indian cities, agriculture, and an efficient postal system, and Bernier's comparative analysis of India with Europe, emphasizing issues like landownership and the state of artisans. Understanding these primary sources is crucial for grasping how external views shaped both contemporary and later European understandings of India, as well as for appreciating the complexities of historical interpretation. Key concepts include cultural relativism, primary source analysis, and the impact of travellers' biases on historical narratives.
This comprehensive assessment is designed to test high school students' ability to recall facts, understand complex historical concepts, analyze different viewpoints, and apply their knowledge to evaluate the significance of these historical accounts. It highlights the importance of travel literature as a historical source and encourages critical thinking about how societies are perceived and documented by outsiders.
Theme Analysis & Strategy
Main ThemeForeign Travellers' Accounts of Indian Society
Subject CategoryIndian History
Key Concepts
Question FocusQuestions focus on the individual contributions and perspectives of Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta, and François Bernier, as well as comparative analysis and overarching themes like the challenges of understanding an 'alien world' and the influence of travellers' accounts. Emphasis is placed on understanding conceptual differences and the impact of their observations.
Which of the following was NOT listed as a common reason for people to travel in search of work, escape, or adventure?
Hint: Think about the common motivations mentioned in the introductory paragraph.
Answer
The text lists reasons like searching for work, escaping natural disasters, being traders, merchants, soldiers, priests, pilgrims, or driven by a sense of adventure, but not explicitly to establish permanent settlements abroad as a common reason for 'travel'.
Explanation
Why are the accounts of foreign travellers considered particularly interesting by historians, as mentioned in the text?
Hint: Consider the contrast between foreign and indigenous writers' focus.
Answer
The text states that 'As these authors came from vastly different social and cultural environments, they were often more attentive to everyday activities and practices which were taken for granted by indigenous writers, for whom these were routine matters, not worthy of being recorded. It is this difference in perspective that makes the accounts of travellers interesting.'
Explanation
Which three travellers' accounts are primarily focused on in this chapter to enrich our knowledge of the past?
Hint: Look for the names introduced as the main subjects of the chapter.
Answer
The chapter explicitly states it will focus on 'Al-Biruni who came from Uzbekistan (eleventh century), Ibn Battuta who came from Morocco, in northwestern Africa (fourteenth century) and the Frenchman François Bernier (seventeenth century).'
Explanation
Al-Biruni was born in 973 in Khwarizm, which is located in present-day ____.
Hint: Recall the country associated with Al-Biruni's birthplace.
Answer
The text states, 'Al-Biruni was born in 973, in Khwarizm in present-day Uzbekistan.'
Explanation
What enabled Al-Biruni to compare languages and translate texts, as described in the text?
Hint: Focus on Al-Biruni's specific skill mentioned for translation.
Answer
The text highlights 'Al-Biruni’s expertise in several languages allowed him to compare languages and translate texts.' It mentions he was well versed in Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, and Sanskrit.
Explanation
What is the name of Al-Biruni's voluminous text, written in Arabic, that covered various subjects about India?
Hint: Recall the specific title of Al-Biruni's famous book.
Answer
The text states, 'Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind, written in Arabic, is simple and lucid. It is a voluminous text, divided into 80 chapters...'
Explanation
Al-Biruni often adopted a distinctive structure in each chapter of his Kitab-ul-Hind. What was this structure?
Hint: Think about the methodical approach Al-Biruni used in his writing.
Answer
The text describes Al-Biruni's structure as 'beginning with a question, following this up with a description based on Sanskritic traditions, and concluding with a comparison with other cultures.'
Explanation
The term 'Hindu' was derived from an Old Persian word used to refer to the region east of which river?
Hint: Recall the river associated with the origin of the term 'Hindu'.
Answer
The text states, 'The term “Hindu” was derived from an Old Persian word, used c. sixth-fifth centuries BCE, to refer to the region east of the river Sindhu (Indus).'
Explanation
According to Al-Biruni, what was the first 'barrier' that obstructed understanding between himself and Indian society?
Hint: Consider the most fundamental communication challenge Al-Biruni identified.
Answer
Al-Biruni 'discussed several “barriers” that he felt obstructed understanding. The first amongst these was language. According to him, Sanskrit was so different from Arabic and Persian that ideas and concepts could not be easily translated from one language into another.'
Explanation
Despite accepting the Brahmanical description of the caste system, what aspect did Al-Biruni disapprove of, finding it contrary to natural laws?
Hint: Al-Biruni's critique of the caste system focused on a specific social concept he found unnatural.
Answer
The text states, 'In spite of his acceptance of the Brahmanical description of the caste system, Al-Biruni disapproved of the notion of pollution... The conception of social pollution, intrinsic to the caste system, was according to him, contrary to the laws of nature.'
Explanation
Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveller, was born in Tangier and was known for his expertise in what field, inherited from his family?
Hint: Think about his family's reputation mentioned in the text.
Answer
The text mentions, 'This Moroccan traveller was born in Tangier into one of the most respectable and educated families known for their expertise in Islamic religious law or shari‘a.'
Explanation
What did Ibn Battuta consider a more important source of knowledge than books, distinguishing him from most other members of his class?
Hint: What was Ibn Battuta's unique approach to learning?
Answer
The text states, 'Unlike most other members of his class, Ibn Battuta considered experience gained through travels to be a more important source of knowledge than books.'
Explanation
Upon his arrival in Delhi, what position was Ibn Battuta appointed to by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq?
Hint: Recall the specific title given to him by the Sultan.
Answer
The text states, 'The Sultan was impressed by his scholarship, and appointed him the qazi or judge of Delhi.'
Explanation
Before his mission to China, Ibn Battuta served as a qazi for eighteen months in which island nation?
Hint: Which island group did he visit and hold a position in before China?
Answer
The text mentions, 'From Malabar he went to the Maldives, where he stayed for eighteen months as the qazi.'
Explanation
How did Ibn Battuta describe the coconut to his audience, who were unfamiliar with it?
Hint: Recall his vivid, comparative description of the coconut's appearance.
Answer
Ibn Battuta described the coconut: 'The nut of a coconut tree resembles a man’s head, for in it are what look like two eyes and a mouth, and the inside of it when it is green looks like the brain, and attached to it is a fibre which looks like hair.'
Explanation
What was Ibn Battuta's description of the 'paan' (betel)?
Hint: Remember his explanation of its cultivation and consumption.
Answer
Ibn Battuta described the paan: 'The betel is a tree which is cultivated in the same manner as the grape-vine; … The betel has no fruit and is grown only for the sake of its leaves … The manner of its use is that before eating it one takes areca nut... Then he takes the leaves of betel, puts a little chalk on them, and masticates them along with the betel.'
Explanation
Which city did Ibn Battuta describe as 'a vast city, with a great population, the largest in India'?
Hint: Recall the capital city he extensively described.
Answer
The text states, 'Ibn Battuta described Delhi as a vast city, with a great population, the largest in India.'
Explanation
What did Ibn Battuta note about Indian agriculture that contributed to the prosperity of the subcontinent?
Hint: What specific characteristic made Indian agriculture productive in his eyes?
Answer
The text mentions, 'Ibn Battuta found Indian agriculture very productive because of the fertility of the soil, which allowed farmers to cultivate two crops a year.'
Explanation
What were the two kinds of postal systems described by Ibn Battuta in India?
Hint: Recall the names and methods of the two postal services.
Answer
Ibn Battuta describes: 'In India the postal system is of two kinds. The horse-post, called uluq, is run by royal horses... The foot-post has three stations per mile; it is called dawa.'
Explanation
According to Ibn Battuta, why was the foot-post (dawa) quicker than the horse-post (uluq)?
Hint: Consider the operational mechanism of the foot-post and its relay system.
Answer
The text details the foot-post having 'three stations per mile' and couriers relaying letters at 'top speed shaking the rod all the while until he reaches the next dawa,' making it very efficient. It explicitly states, 'This foot-post is quicker than the horse-post.'
Explanation
François Bernier, a Frenchman, was associated with the Mughal court in what capacity?
Hint: Recall his professional roles within the Mughal Empire.
Answer
The text states, 'He was closely associated with the Mughal court, as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, the eldest son of Emperor Shah Jahan, and later as an intellectual and scientist, with Danishmand Khan.'
Explanation
What was a distinguishing characteristic of Bernier's writing style and objective compared to Ibn Battuta?
Hint: Consider Bernier's consistent analytical approach and his audience.
Answer
The text states, 'He was far more preoccupied with comparing and contrasting what he saw in India with the situation in Europe... frequently comparing what he saw in India with the situation in Europe... In virtually every instance Bernier described what he saw in India as a bleak situation in comparison to developments in Europe.'
Explanation
According to Bernier, what was one of the fundamental differences between Mughal India and Europe that he believed had disastrous consequences for the economy and society?
Hint: Bernier's major criticism of the Mughal economic system centered on ownership.
Answer
The text states, 'According to Bernier, one of the fundamental differences between Mughal India and Europe was the lack of private property in land in the former. He was a firm believer in the virtues of private property, and saw crown ownership of land as being harmful for both the state and its people.'
Explanation
Bernier confidently asserted that 'There is no middle state in India.' What did he mean by this?
Hint: Consider his description of the social hierarchy and classes.
Answer
The text explains, 'Bernier described Indian society as consisting of undifferentiated masses of impoverished people, subjugated by a small minority of a very rich and powerful ruling class. Between the poorest of the poor and the richest of the rich, there was no social group or class worth the name. Bernier confidently asserted: “There is no middle state in India.”'
Explanation
Bernier's descriptions influenced Western theorists like Montesquieu and Karl Marx. What concept did Montesquieu develop based on Bernier's account?
Hint: Recall the political theory Montesquieu formulated based on Bernier's view of Asian rule.
Answer
The text states, 'The French philosopher Montesquieu, for instance, used this account to develop the idea of oriental despotism, according to which rulers in Asia (the Orient or the East) enjoyed absolute authority over their subjects.'
Explanation
What term did Bernier use to describe Mughal cities, implying they lacked viable social and economic foundations and depended on imperial patronage?
Hint: Think about his specific, somewhat dismissive, description of Mughal urban centers.
Answer
The text states, 'Bernier described Mughal cities as “camp towns”, by which he meant towns that owed their existence, and depended for their survival, on the imperial camp.'
Explanation
Al-Biruni described his work as 'a help to those who want to discuss religious questions with them (the Hindus), and as a repertory of information to those who want to associate with them.' What does this suggest about his primary goal?
Hint: Consider the phrases 'help to those who want to discuss' and 'repertory of information'.
Answer
His statement indicates an objective to facilitate understanding and association, acting as a source of information for those interacting with Hindus, suggesting a goal of providing an accessible resource.
Explanation
To provide an understanding of Indian society, Al-Biruni depended almost exclusively on the works of which group?
Hint: Which specific group's texts did he rely heavily upon?
Answer
The text states, 'Al-Biruni depended almost exclusively on the works of Brahmanas, often citing passages from the Vedas, the Puranas, the Bhagavad Gita, the works of Patanjali, the Manusmriti, etc., to provide an understanding of Indian society.'
Explanation
Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by looking for parallels in other societies. What was his primary conclusion from this comparison?
Hint: What did his comparison with ancient Persia reveal about social divisions?
Answer
The text states, 'He noted that in ancient Persia, four social categories were recognised... In other words, he attempted to suggest that social divisions were not unique to India.'
Explanation
What was a significant hazard that Ibn Battuta frequently encountered during his long journeys, even when travelling in a caravan?
Hint: Recall the constant danger he faced on the roads.
Answer
The text explicitly states, 'Travelling was also more insecure: Ibn Battuta was attacked by bands of robbers several times.'
Explanation
Ibn Battuta's Rihla is described as providing 'extremely rich and interesting details about the social and cultural life in the subcontinent'. What type of information did he particularly highlight to impress his audience?
Hint: What characteristic of Indian life did he find most compelling for his readers?
Answer
The text notes, 'anything that was unfamiliar was particularly highlighted in order to ensure that the listener or the reader was suitably impressed by accounts of distant yet accessible worlds.'
Explanation
Ibn Battuta noted that Indian manufactures, especially cotton cloth, fine muslins, silks, brocade, and satin, were in great demand in which regions?
Hint: Consider the broader inter-Asian trade networks he observed.
Answer
The text states, 'Indian manufactures being in great demand in both West Asia and Southeast Asia, fetching huge profits for artisans and merchants.'
Explanation
Bernier's portrayal of India often emphasized its inferiority to the Western world. What model did his representation of India work on?
Hint: Think about how he structured his comparisons between India and Europe.
Answer
The text states, 'His representation of India works on the model of binary opposition, where India is presented as the inverse of Europe.'
Explanation
What did Bernier believe was the consequence of crown ownership of land in the Mughal Empire?
Hint: Consider the disincentives he associated with the lack of private land ownership.
Answer
Bernier argued that 'landholders could not pass on their land to their children. So they were averse to any long-term investment in the sustenance and expansion of production. The absence of private property in land had, therefore, prevented the emergence of the class of “improving” landlords... It had led to the uniform ruination of agriculture, excessive oppression of the peasantry.'
Explanation
What did Abu'l Fazl, Akbar's official chronicler, describe land revenue as, differing from Bernier's perception of it as 'rent on land owned by the state'?
Hint: Recall how a Mughal chronicler defined land revenue.
Answer
The text states, 'Abu’l Fazl... describes the land revenue as “remunerations of sovereignty”, a claim made by the ruler on his subjects for the protection he provided rather than as rent on land that he owned. ...this was actually not a rent or even a land tax, but a tax on the crop.'
Explanation
Although Bernier generally painted a bleak picture of India, what did he concede about its economy that suggests a more complex reality?
Hint: Think about his observation regarding India's role in global trade and its wealth.
Answer
The text mentions, 'At the same time, he conceded that vast quantities of the world’s precious metals flowed into India, as manufactures were exported in exchange for gold and silver.'
Explanation
In western India, what were merchant groups often called, and what was the title of their chief?
Hint: Recall the specific terms for merchant communities and their leaders.
Answer
The text states, 'In western India these groups were called mahajans, and their chief, the sheth.'
Explanation
What were the imperial workshops or 'karkhanas' described by Bernier?
Hint: Think about the function of these imperial establishments and who worked there.
Answer
Bernier described them as 'Large halls are seen at many places, called karkhanas or workshops for the artisans. In one hall, embroiderers are busily employed, superintended by a master. In another, you see the goldsmiths; in a third, painters...'
Explanation
Al-Biruni described Sanskrit as 'of an enormous range, both in words and inflections, something like the Arabic, calling one and the same thing by various names... and using one and the same word for a variety of subjects.' What challenge did this pose for him?
Hint: Consider the implications of a language having both many names for one thing and one word for many things.
Answer
He explicitly states, 'If you want to conquer this difficulty (i.e. to learn Sanskrit), you will not find it easy,' implying that its complexity and varied usage made understanding and accurate translation difficult.
Explanation
According to Al-Biruni's account of the varna system, which caste was considered the 'choice part of the whole genus' and the very best of mankind, created from the head of Brahman?
Hint: Recall the highest varna in the traditional system.
Answer
Al-Biruni's account states, 'The highest caste are the Brahmana, of whom the books of the Hindus tell us that they were created from the head of Brahman... Therefore the Hindus consider them as the very best of mankind.'
Explanation
How did the local ruler of Morocco react when Ibn Battuta returned home after his extensive travels?
Hint: Think about the consequence of his return and how his experiences were preserved.
Answer
The text states, 'When he returned, the local ruler issued instructions that his stories be recorded.' This led to the creation of the Rihla.
Explanation
What makes the travelogues written in Persian between 1400 and 1800 by visitors to India, following Al-Biruni and Ibn Battuta, significant?
Hint: Consider the relationship between these later travelogues and the earlier ones.
Answer
The text says, 'These writers followed in the footsteps of Al-Biruni and Ibn Battuta, and had sometimes read these earlier authors,' indicating a continuation and influence.
Explanation
Which French jeweller, mentioned in the text, travelled to India at least six times and was fascinated with trading conditions?
Hint: Recall the name of the French jeweller.
Answer
The text states, 'One of the most famous was the French jeweller Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who travelled to India at least six times. He was particularly fascinated with the trading conditions in India.'
Explanation
How did the writings of European travellers contribute to the creation and circulation of ideas about India for Europeans?
Hint: Consider the technological means that allowed European accounts to reach a wide audience.
Answer
The text notes, 'The writings of European travellers helped produce an image of India for Europeans through the printing and circulation of their books.' It also mentions Bernier's works were translated and reprinted multiple times.
Explanation
Based on Bernier's description of travelling with the Mughal army, what item did he carry to ensure a refreshing drink, highlighting a local custom?
Hint: Look for a specific item he packed for refreshment, related to local food.
Answer
Bernier states, 'Nor have I forgotten a linen bag with its small iron hook for the purpose of suspending and draining dahi or curds; nothing being considered so refreshing in this country as lemonade and dahi.'
Explanation
Bernier warned that if European kings followed the Mughal model, their kingdoms would become 'kings of deserts and solitudes, of beggars and barbarians.' What was the core reason for this grim prediction in his view?
Hint: Recall his central economic criticism of the Mughal system.
Answer
His entire critique and warning stemmed from his belief that 'all this was because of one reason: crown ownership of land.'
Explanation
Contrary to Bernier's 'no middle state' assertion, what was the reality of rural society in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as presented in the text?
Hint: Think about the variety of groups that existed in rural society beyond the extremes Bernier described.
Answer
The text explicitly refutes Bernier's simplified picture, stating, 'In fact, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, rural society was characterised by considerable social and economic differentiation. At one end of the spectrum were the big zamindars, who enjoyed superior rights in land and, at the other, the “untouchable” landless labourers. In between was the big peasant, who used hired labour and engaged in commodity production, and the smaller peasant who could barely produce for his subsistence.'
Explanation
Besides merchants, which professional classes were mentioned as part of urban groups in India?
Hint: Recall the diverse non-merchant professions mentioned in urban centers.
Answer
The text lists 'Other urban groups included professional classes such as physicians (hakim or vaid), teachers (pundit or mulla), lawyers (wakil), painters, architects, musicians, calligraphers, etc.'
Explanation
Why might European travellers like Bernier have regarded land revenue demands in India as 'rent' on land owned by the state, even though it was a tax on the crop?
Hint: Consider the perspective of European visitors and the characteristics of the revenue system.
Answer
The text suggests, 'It is possible that European travellers regarded such claims as rent because land revenue demands were often very high. However, this was actually not a rent or even a land tax, but a tax on the crop.' Their European context for 'rent' and the high demands likely led to this misinterpretation.
Explanation
What was one of the primary reasons for recording Ibn Battuta's stories, as stated by Ibn Juzayy?
Hint: Focus on the intended effect of his stories on the audience.
Answer
Ibn Juzayy stated the narrative 'gave entertainment to the mind and delight to the ears and eyes, with a variety of curious particulars by the exposition of which he gave edification and of marvellous things, by referring to which he aroused interest.'
Explanation
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