12 NCERT CBSE History:
Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies
Kinship, Caste, and Class in Early Indian Societies
High School History | Social Structures & Cultural Practices (c. 600 BCE - 600 CE) - Comprehensive Assessment
Lesson Summary & Overview
Explore the intricate social fabric of early Indian societies between c. 600 BCE and 600 CE, focusing on the evolution and interplay of kinship, caste, and class. This period witnessed significant transformations, including the extension of agriculture, the emergence of distinct craft specialists, and the sharpening of social differences due to unequal wealth distribution. Central to understanding these dynamics is the Mahabharata, a colossal epic offering rich depictions of diverse social categories and situations, composed over a millennium and reflecting both normative behaviors and deviations.
Delve into the complexities of family life, patriliny, and marriage rules, including concepts like exogamy and endogamy, and the Brahmanical practice of gotra. The assessment also examines the rigid varna system, its prescribed occupations, and the emergence of jatis, alongside the challenges posed by non-Kshatriya kings and the integration of diverse social groups. Critiques of the varna order from Buddhist traditions and alternative social scenarios, such as wealth sharing in Tamilakam, provide contrasting perspectives on status and resources.
Finally, this lesson assessment highlights the critical methods historians employ to interpret ancient texts like the Mahabharata, considering language, content (narrative vs. didactic), authorship, intended audience, and archaeological evidence. Understanding these methodologies is crucial for reconstructing social histories and appreciating the nuanced interplay of tradition, conflict, and consensus that shaped early Indian society.
Theme Analysis & Strategy
Main ThemeSocial Structures in Early India
Subject CategoryHistory
Key Concepts
Question FocusThis assessment focuses on understanding the complex social structures, norms, and deviations in early Indian societies (c. 600 BCE - 600 CE) as depicted in various texts, particularly the Mahabharata. Questions test recall of key terms, comprehension of social practices, analysis of textual evidence, and evaluation of historical interpretations. Emphasis is placed on identifying core concepts, relationships, and challenges to established norms.
What is the approximate time period covered by the social and economic changes discussed in the initial part of the text?
Hint: Look at the very first sentence of the provided document to find the timeframe.
Answer
The text explicitly states the period as 'c. 600 BCE and 600 CE'.
Explanation
The document begins by stating, 'In the previous chapter we saw that there were several changes in economic and political life between c. 600 BCE and 600 CE.' This sets the primary time frame for the discussion of early Indian societies.
According to the text, which of the following was a consequence of the extension of agriculture into forested areas?
Hint: Refer to the opening paragraph describing changes in economic and political life.
Answer
The text states that the extension of agriculture into forested areas 'transformed the lives of forest dwellers'.
Explanation
The first paragraph lists several changes influencing societies, including 'the extension of agriculture into forested areas transformed the lives of forest dwellers'.
What key question do historians need to keep in mind when using textual traditions to understand social processes?
Hint: The text discusses the perspective from which historical sources are written.
Answer
The text emphasizes the need to consider 'who composed what and for whom'.
Explanation
The document states, 'As we will see, each text (and inscription) was written from the perspective of specific social categories. So we need to keep in mind who composed what and for whom.'
Which colossal epic, running into over 100,000 verses, is highlighted as one of the richest texts for understanding social histories of the subcontinent?
Hint: This epic is central to the lesson's discussion of social categories and situations.
Answer
The Mahabharata is described as 'a colossal epic running in its present form into over 100,000 verses'.
Explanation
The text specifically states, 'In focusing on the Mahabharata, a colossal epic running in its present form into over 100,000 verses with depictions of a wide range of social categories and situations, we draw on one of the richest texts of the subcontinent.'
Over what approximate period was the Mahabharata composed?
Hint: The composition period of the Mahabharata is mentioned right after its description.
Answer
The text mentions it was composed 'over a period of about 1,000 years (c. 500 BCE onwards)'.
Explanation
The document states, 'It was composed over a period of about 1,000 years (c. 500 BCE onwards), and some of the stories it contains may have been in circulation even earlier.'
What is the central story of the Mahabharata?
Hint: Think about the main conflict described in the epic.
Answer
The central story is explicitly stated as 'about two sets of warring cousins'.
Explanation
The text clearly states, 'The central story is about two sets of warring cousins.' Later, it clarifies these cousins are the Kauravas and Pandavas, feuding over land and power.
When did the ambitious project to prepare a critical edition of the Mahabharata begin, and under whose leadership?
Hint: Look for the section titled 'The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata'.
Answer
The project started in '1919, under the leadership of a noted Indian Sanskritist, V.S. Sukthankar'.
Explanation
Section 1, 'The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata', explicitly states, 'One of the most ambitious projects of scholarship began in 1919, under the leadership of a noted Indian Sanskritist, V.S. Sukthankar'.
What did the scholars observe about the Sanskrit versions of the Mahabharata during the critical edition project?
Hint: The text discusses two main findings from the critical edition project.
Answer
The project revealed 'several common elements' and 'enormous regional variations'.
Explanation
The text states, 'Two things became apparent: there were several common elements in the Sanskrit versions of the story... Also evident were enormous regional variations in the ways in which the text had been transmitted over the centuries.'
How did historians in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries initially tend to approach normative Sanskrit texts regarding social history?
Hint: Consider how initial historical studies of these texts were conducted.
Answer
They 'tended to take these texts at face value – believing that everything that was laid down in these texts was actually practised'.
Explanation
The text explains, 'When issues of social history were explored for the first time by historians in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, they tended to take these texts at face value – believing that everything that was laid down in these texts was actually practised.'
What Sanskrit term is used to designate families, according to the text?
Hint: Look for the 'Terms for family and kin' box.
Answer
The text explicitly states 'kula' to designate families.
Explanation
The 'Terms for family and kin' box on page 55 states, 'Sanskrit texts use the term kula to designate families and jnāti for the larger network of kinfolk. The term vamsha is used for lineage.'
What does 'patriliny' mean?
Hint: Check the definition provided in the 'Terms for family and kin' box.
Answer
Patriliny is defined as 'tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on'.
Explanation
The 'Terms for family and kin' box defines 'Patriliny' as 'tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on.'
How did the central story of the Mahabharata reinforce the idea of patriliny?
Hint: Consider the outcome of the feud between the Kauravas and Pandavas.
Answer
The conflict between Kauravas and Pandavas ended in a battle after which patrilineal succession was proclaimed, reinforcing its value.
Explanation
Section 2.2, 'The ideal of patriliny', states, 'Ultimately, the conflict ended in a battle, in which the Pandavas emerged victorious. After that, patrilineal succession was proclaimed. While patriliny had existed prior to the composition of the epic, the central story of the Mahabharata reinforced the idea that it was valuable.'
Under patriliny, what could sons claim upon the death of their fathers?
Hint: The definition of patriliny describes the inheritance rights.
Answer
The text states that 'sons could claim the resources (including the throne in the case of kings) of their fathers when the latter died'.
Explanation
Section 2.2 explains, 'Under patriliny, sons could claim the resources (including the throne in the case of kings) of their fathers when the latter died.'
Despite the ideal of patriliny, what variations in practice were observed in ruling dynasties?
Hint: The text mentions exceptions to the general rule of patrilineal succession.
Answer
The text lists variations such as 'sometimes there were no sons, in some situations brothers succeeded one another, sometimes other kinsmen claimed the throne, and, in very exceptional circumstances, women such as Prabhavati Gupta... exercised power'.
Explanation
Section 2.2 notes, 'although there were variations in practice: sometimes there were no sons, in some situations brothers succeeded one another, sometimes other kinsmen claimed the throne, and, in very exceptional circumstances, women such as Prabhavati Gupta (Chapter 2) exercised power.'
Which Vedic text contains a mantra chanted during marriage rituals to produce 'fine sons'?
Hint: Look at Source 1, which provides an excerpt of a mantra.
Answer
The excerpt is identified as 'a mantra from the Rigveda'.
Explanation
Source 1, 'Producing 'fine sons'', clearly states, 'Here is an excerpt of a mantra from the Rigveda, which was probably inserted in the text c. 1000 BCE, to be chanted by the priest while conducting the marriage ritual.'
What was considered a desirable practice for daughters within the framework of patrilineage?
Hint: Look at the section discussing rules of marriage and the term 'exogamy'.
Answer
The text states that 'marrying them into families outside the kin was considered desirable. This system, called exogamy'.
Explanation
Section 2.3, 'Rules of marriage', explains, 'At the same time, marrying them into families outside the kin was considered desirable. This system, called exogamy (literally, marrying outside)'.
What is the term for the practice of a man having several wives?
Hint: Refer to the 'Types of marriages' box.
Answer
Polygyny is defined as 'the practice of a man having several wives'.
Explanation
The 'Types of marriages' box defines 'Polygyny' as 'the practice of a man having several wives'.
What religious duty of the father arose from the careful regulation of high-status young girls and women for marriage?
Hint: This duty is related to the marriage of daughters and ensuring it's done correctly.
Answer
This gave rise to the belief that 'kanyadana or the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father'.
Explanation
Section 2.3 states, 'This gave rise to the belief that kanyadana or the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father.'
The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras, which laid down codes of social behavior, were compiled in Sanskrit texts from approximately what period?
Hint: Look for the period when Brahmanas responded to social complexities by compiling legal codes.
Answer
The text states, 'From c. 500 BCE, these norms were compiled in Sanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras'.
Explanation
Section 2.3 mentions, 'From c. 500 BCE, these norms were compiled in Sanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras.'
What were the two particularly important rules about 'gotra' in Brahmanical practice?
Hint: Look for the 'gotra' section and its two key rules.
Answer
The rules were: 'women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt that of their husband on marriage and members of the same gotra could not marry'.
Explanation
Section 2.4, 'The gotra of women', details, 'Two rules about gotra were particularly important: women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt that of their husband on marriage and members of the same gotra could not marry.'
Based on the Satavahana inscriptions, how did some Satavahana women deviate from Brahmanical gotra rules?
Hint: The text discusses how names of Satavahana rulers and their wives provide evidence of deviation.
Answer
Satavahana women 'retained these names instead of adopting names derived from their husband’s gotra name' and 'some of these women belonged to the same gotra'.
Explanation
The text states, 'An examination of the names of women who married Satavahana rulers indicates that many of them had names derived from gotras such as Gotama and Vasistha, their father’s gotras. They evidently retained these names instead of adopting names derived from their husband’s gotra name as they were required to do according to the Brahmanical rules. What is also apparent is that some of these women belonged to the same gotra. As is obvious, this ran counter to the ideal of exogamy recommended in the Brahmanical texts.'
What term is used to identify Satavahana rulers, indicating names derived from that of the mother?
Hint: Look for the term used to describe names derived from the mother.
Answer
The text states, 'Satavahana rulers were identified through metronymics (names derived from that of the mother)'.
Explanation
Section 2.5, 'Were mothers important?', explicitly states, 'We have seen that Satavahana rulers were identified through metronymics (names derived from that of the mother).'
According to the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras, how were 'varnas' defined?
Hint: Look for the initial definition of varnas in the 'Social Differences' section.
Answer
Varnas were defined 'by their qualifications, occupations and professions, as per their abilities and interests'.
Explanation
Section 3, 'Social Differences: Within and Beyond the Framework of Caste', states, 'Varnas, here, were defined by their qualifications, occupations and professions, as per their abilities and interests.'
What was the primary occupation prescribed for Shudras in the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras?
Hint: Review the prescribed duties for each varna.
Answer
Shudras were 'expected to assist the three varnas in the proper functioning of the society'.
Explanation
Section 3.1, 'The 'right' occupation', outlines the duties: 'Shudras were expected to assist the three varnas in the proper functioning of the society.'
What does the Rigvedic hymn, where the speaker is a poet, his father a physician, and his mother a grinder of corn, suggest about early Vedic society?
Hint: This example is given in the context of 'Flexibility with the Social Order'.
Answer
The hymn is cited as evidence for 'flexibility in social roles' and 'flexibility and mobility in occupational roles'.
Explanation
Source 6, 'Flexibility with the Social Order', uses this Rigvedic hymn as evidence that 'In the early Vedic society, there appears to have been flexibility and mobility in occupational roles. Rigvedic hymns also often cited as evidence for flexibility in social roles.'
According to the Shastras, who could be kings?
Hint: This is a direct statement about kingship in the context of the varna system.
Answer
The text states, 'According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings'.
Explanation
Section 3.2, 'Non-Kshatriya kings', explicitly states, 'According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings.'
Which of the following examples illustrates a challenge to the Shastras' rule that only Kshatriyas could be kings?
Hint: Look for examples of ruling lineages with origins other than Kshatriya.
Answer
The text mentions that 'The Shungas and Kanvas, the immediate successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas'.
Explanation
Section 3.2, 'Non-Kshatriya kings', provides examples: 'The Shungas and Kanvas, the immediate successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas. In fact, political power was effectively open to anyone who could muster support and resources, and rarely depended on birth as a Kshatriya.'
The Satavahana ruler Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani claimed to be a unique Brahmana and a destroyer of Kshatriya pride, yet he entered into a marriage alliance with the kin of the Shaka ruler Rudradaman. What does this example suggest about integration within the caste framework?
Hint: Consider the contradictions in the Satavahana ruler's actions and claims.
Answer
The text concludes from this example that 'integration within the framework of caste was often a complicated process'.
Explanation
Section 3.2 uses this example to illustrate: 'As you can see from this example, integration within the framework of caste was often a complicated process. The Satavahanas claimed to be Brahmanas, whereas according to the Brahmanas, kings ought to have been Kshatriyas. They claimed to uphold the fourfold varna order, but entered into marriage alliances with people who were supposed to be excluded from the system. And, as we have seen, they practised endogamy instead of the exogamous system recommended in the Brahmanical texts.'
What is the key difference between 'varnas' and 'jatis' as described in the text?
Hint: The distinction is explicitly stated in the section on 'Jatis and social mobility'.
Answer
The text states, 'While the number of varnas was fixed at four, there was no restriction on the number of jatis'.
Explanation
Section 3.3, 'Jatis and social mobility', clarifies: 'While the number of varnas was fixed at four, there was no restriction on the number of jatis. In fact, the number of jatis kept on increasing as the society encountered new social groups and new occupations.'
What were 'shrenis' or guilds?
Hint: This term is linked to jatis and shared professions.
Answer
The text states that 'Jatis which shared a common occupation or profession were sometimes organised into shrenis or guilds'.
Explanation
Section 3.3 explains, 'Jatis which shared a common occupation or profession were sometimes organised into shrenis or guilds.'
What term was used by Brahmanas to label those who spoke non-Sanskritic languages and were looked down upon?
Hint: This term is used for 'barbarians or outsiders'.
Answer
Those who spoke non-Sanskritic languages were labeled as 'mlechchhas'.
Explanation
Section 3.4, 'Beyond the four varnas: Integration', states, 'Sometimes those who spoke non-Sanskritic languages were labelled as mlechchhas and looked down upon.'
What was the basis for classifying certain social categories as 'untouchables'?
Hint: Consider the concepts of purity and pollution in the context of social hierarchy.
Answer
This classification 'rested on a notion that certain activities, especially those connected with the performance of rituals, were sacred and by extension 'pure''.
Explanation
Section 3.5, 'Beyond the four varnas: Subordination and conflict', explains, 'This rested on a notion that certain activities, especially those connected with the performance of rituals, were sacred and by extension 'pure'. Those who considered themselves pure avoided taking food from those they designated as 'untouchable'. In sharp contrast to the purity aspect, some activities were regarded as particularly 'polluting'.'
What were the 'chandalas' expected to do, according to the Manusmriti?
Hint: The duties of the chandalas are explicitly listed.
Answer
The Manusmriti laid down duties such as living outside the village, using discarded utensils, wearing clothes of the dead, and serving as executioners.
Explanation
Section 3.5 describes, 'The Manusmriti laid down the 'duties' of the chandalas. They had to live outside the village, use discarded utensils, and wear clothes of the dead and ornaments of iron. They could not walk about in villages and cities at night. They had to dispose of the bodies of those who had no relatives and serve as executioners.'
What did the accounts of Chinese Buddhist monks Fa Xian and Xuan Zang observe about 'untouchables' in India?
Hint: These monks' observations describe the practical implementation of social exclusion.
Answer
Fa Xian wrote that 'untouchables' had to sound a clapper, and Xuan Zang observed executioners and scavengers were forced to live outside the city.
Explanation
Section 3.5 states, 'Much later, the Chinese Buddhist monk Fa Xian (c. fifth century CE) wrote that 'untouchables' had to sound a clapper in the streets so that people could avoid seeing them. Another Chinese pilgrim, Xuan Zang (c. seventh century), observed that executioners and scavengers were forced to live outside the city.'
What often shaped the social positions of various social actors (e.g., slaves, peasants, kings) in the subcontinent?
Hint: This is the main theme of Section 4.
Answer
Their social positions were 'often shaped by their access to economic resources'.
Explanation
Section 4, 'Beyond Birth: Resources and Status', states, 'Their social positions were often shaped by their access to economic resources.'
According to the smriti tradition, what was 'stridhana'?
Hint: This term is related to women's access to property.
Answer
Stridhana is defined as 'a woman's wealth', specifically gifts received at marriage, which could be inherited by her children.
Explanation
Section 4.1, 'Gendered access to property', explains, 'The women were also allowed to retain the gifts they received on the occasion of marriage as stridhana (literally, a woman's wealth). This could be inherited by their children, without the husband having any claim on it.'
Despite the concept of stridhana, what does the cumulative evidence suggest about women's access to resources like land, cattle, and money?
Hint: This section discusses the reality of property control despite some legal provisions.
Answer
Cumulative evidence 'suggests that while upper-class women may have had access to resources, land, cattle and money were generally controlled by men. In other words, social differences between men and women were sharpened because of the differences in access to resources'.
Explanation
Section 4.1 concludes, 'However, cumulative evidence – both epigraphic and textual – suggests that while upper-class women may have had access to resources, land, cattle and money were generally controlled by men. In other words, social differences between men and women were sharpened because of the differences in access to resources.'
According to the Manusmriti, which of the following is NOT one of the seven means of acquiring wealth for men?
Hint: Compare the lists for men and women's wealth acquisition.
Answer
Gifts from brother, mother, or father are listed as means for women to acquire wealth, not men.
Explanation
Source 12, 'How could men and women acquire wealth?', lists for men: 'inheritance, finding, purchase, conquest, investment, work, and acceptance of gifts from good people'. For women, it lists: 'what was given in front of the fire (marriage) or the bridal procession, or as a token of affection, and what she got from her brother, mother or father.'
According to Brahmanical texts, how did 'varna' regulate access to wealth?
Hint: Recall the prescribed occupations for each varna and their implications for wealth.
Answer
Shudras were prescribed servitude, while other varnas had varied occupations, implying that 'the wealthiest men would have been the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas'.
Explanation
Section 4.2, 'Varna and access to property', states, 'As we saw earlier, the only 'occupation' prescribed for Shudras was servitude, while a variety of occupations were listed for men of the first three varnas. If these provisions were actually implemented, the wealthiest men would have been the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas.'
What was a significant aspect of early Buddhist critiques of the varna order?
Hint: Look for the Buddhist perspective on varna, particularly regarding birth and status.
Answer
Buddhists 'recognized that there were differences in society, but did not regard these as natural or inflexible. They also rejected the idea of claims to status on the basis of birth'.
Explanation
Section 4.2 states, 'The Buddhists recognised that there were differences in society, but did not regard these as natural or inflexible. They also rejected the idea of claims to status on the basis of birth.'
In the Buddhist text Majjhima Nikaya, how does Kachchana challenge the Brahmanical claim that Brahmanas are the 'best caste' and other castes are 'low'?
Hint: Consider the dialogue between Avantiputta and Kachchana and the example of the wealthy Shudra.
Answer
Kachchana asks if a wealthy Shudra could command polite service from others, including Kshatriyas and Brahmanas, and Avantiputta concedes this, leading to the conclusion that varnas are the same on this count.
Explanation
Source 13, 'The wealthy Shudra', details Kachchana's argument: 'Kachchana replied: 'What if a Shudra were wealthy … would another Shudra …or a Kshatriya or a Brahmana or a Vaishya … speak politely to him?' Avantiputta replied that if a Shudra had wealth or corn or gold or silver, he could have as his obedient servant another Shudra... or he could even have a Kshatriya or a Brahmana or a Vaishya as his obedient servant. Kachchana asked: 'This being so, are not these four varnas exactly the same?' Avantiputta conceded that there was no difference amongst the varnas on this count.'
In ancient Tamilakam, what value was cherished regarding wealth, contrasting with mere accumulation?
Hint: This section describes a different approach to wealth and status in Tamilakam.
Answer
The text mentions that 'men who were generous were respected, while those who were miserly or simply accumulated wealth for themselves were despised', and that 'those who controlled resources were also expected to share them'.
Explanation
Section 4.3, 'An alternative social scenario: Sharing wealth', states, 'However, there were other possibilities as well; situations where men who were generous were respected, while those who were miserly or simply accumulated wealth for themselves were despised... those who controlled resources were also expected to share them.'
According to the Buddhist myth in the Sutta Pitaka, what was the institution of kingship based on?
Hint: Look for the Buddhist explanation of social inequalities and the role of the 'mahasammata'.
Answer
The myth suggests 'that the institution of kingship was based on human choice, with taxes as a form of payment for services rendered by the king'.
Explanation
Section 5, 'Explaining Social Differences: A Social Contract', describes the Buddhist myth: 'This suggests that the institution of kingship was based on human choice, with taxes as a form of payment for services rendered by the king.'
When analyzing texts, what do historians examine regarding the language used?
Hint: This is part of the 'Handling Texts' section, specifically about language.
Answer
Historians examine 'whether texts were written in Prakrit, Pali or Tamil, languages that were probably used by ordinary people, or in Sanskrit, a language meant almost exclusively for priests and elites'.
Explanation
Section 6, 'Handling Texts', states, 'They examine whether texts were written in Prakrit, Pali or Tamil, languages that were probably used by ordinary people, or in Sanskrit, a language meant almost exclusively for priests and elites.'
Historians classify the contents of the Mahabharata under two broad heads. What are they?
Hint: Look for the classification of Mahabharata's content in section 6.1.
Answer
The two broad heads are 'sections that contain stories, designated as the narrative, and sections that contain prescriptions about social norms, designated as didactic'.
Explanation
Section 6.1, 'Language and content', explains, 'Historians usually classify the contents of the present text under two broad heads – sections that contain stories, designated as the narrative, and sections that contain prescriptions about social norms, designated as didactic.'
Who traditionally composed the original story of the Mahabharata?
Hint: This is discussed in the 'Author(s) and dates' section.
Answer
The original story was 'probably composed by charioteer-bards known as sutas'.
Explanation
Section 6.2, 'Author(s) and dates', states, 'The original story was probably composed by charioteer-bards known as sutas who generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield and composed poems celebrating their victories and other achievements.'
What significant addition was made to the Mahabharata between c. 200 and 400 CE?
Hint: This period saw a significant increase in the text's length and content type.
Answer
Between c. 200 and 400 CE, 'large didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti were added'.
Explanation
Section 6.2 mentions, 'Subsequently, between c. 200 and 400 CE, large didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti were added. With these additions, a text which initially perhaps had less than 10,000 verses grew to comprise about 100,000 verses.'
Which archaeologist excavated at Hastinapura in 1951-52 to find evidence related to the Mahabharata?
Hint: This information is found in the section about the search for convergence between texts and archaeology.
Answer
The text states, 'In 1951-52, the archaeologist B.B. Lal excavated at a village named Hastinapura'.
Explanation
Section 6.3, 'The search for convergence', mentions, 'In 1951-52, the archaeologist B.B. Lal excavated at a village named Hastinapura in Meerut (Uttar Pradesh).'
What did B.B. Lal's excavations at Hastinapura reveal about houses in the second phase (c. twelfth-seventh centuries BCE)?
Hint: Look for the description of houses in the second occupational level at Hastinapura.
Answer
Lal noted, 'no definite plans of houses were obtained, but walls of mud and mud-bricks were duly encountered. The discovery of mud-plaster with prominent reed-marks suggested that some of the houses had reed walls plastered over with mud'.
Explanation
Section 6.3 details Lal's findings: 'This is what Lal noted about the houses in the second phase (c. twelfth-seventh centuries BCE): 'Within the limited area excavated, no definite plans of houses were obtained, but walls of mud and mud-bricks were duly encountered. The discovery of mud-plaster with prominent reed-marks suggested that some of the houses had reed walls plastered over with mud.''
Which of the following terms refers to marriage within a unit, such as a kin group, caste, or locality?
Hint: This is a direct definition from the 'Types of marriages' box.
Answer
Endogamy is defined as 'marriage within a unit – this could be a kin group, caste, or a group living in the same locality'.
Explanation
The 'Types of marriages' box on page 57 defines 'Endogamy' as 'marriage within a unit – this could be a kin group, caste, or a group living in the same locality'.
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