12 NCERT CBSE
History Bricks, Beads and Bones:
The Harappan Civilisation
Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation
High School History | Comprehensive Assessment & Review Worksheet
Lesson Summary & Overview
Explore the fascinating world of the Harappan or Indus Valley Civilisation, one of the earliest urban cultures. This lesson delves into its origins, distinct phases—Early, Mature, and Late Harappan—and the sophisticated societal structures it developed. Key aspects include advanced urban planning evident in cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa, with their meticulously designed drainage systems, standardized bricks, and impressive public structures such as the Great Bath. Understanding the Harappan way of life is crucial for grasping early Indian history.
Discover the diverse subsistence strategies of the Harappans, encompassing a wide range of plant and animal products, and their agricultural technologies, including evidence of ploughing and irrigation. The assessment also covers their intricate craft production, from bead-making using various materials to metal-working, and their extensive trade networks with distant lands like Oman and Mesopotamia. Learn about the enigmatic Harappan script, the precise system of weights, and ongoing archaeological debates regarding their social hierarchies and the nature of their authority.
Finally, this lesson examines the archaeological journey of discovering the Harappan Civilisation, highlighting the contributions of pioneers like Cunningham, Marshall, and Wheeler, and the evolution of archaeological methods. It also touches upon the theories surrounding the civilization's decline and the latest archaeogenetic research providing insights into the indigenous roots and genetic continuity of the Harappan people. This comprehensive overview is designed to deepen your understanding of this ancient and influential civilisation.
Theme Analysis & Strategy
Main ThemeAncient Civilisations of India
Subject CategoryHistory
Key Concepts
Question FocusThis assessment focuses on testing the student's understanding of the Harappan Civilisation's key features, timeline, societal aspects, economic activities, and the methods used by archaeologists to study it. Questions are designed to cover various Bloom's Taxonomy levels, from recall to analysis.
What is the most distinctive artefact of the Harappan or Indus Valley Civilisation, often made of steatite?
Hint: Think about the object mentioned at the very beginning of the text as being highly distinctive.
Answer
The Harappan seal is described as possibly the most distinctive artefact.
Explanation
The source text states, 'The Harappan seal (Fig.1.1) is possibly the most distinctive artefact of the Harappan or Indus valley civilisation. Made of a stone called steatite...'
Which phase of the Harappan Civilisation is described as the most prosperous urban phase?
Hint: Recall the specific terms used for the different developmental stages of the civilization.
Answer
The Mature Harappan phase is identified as the most prosperous urban phase.
Explanation
The text states, 'The urban phase of the civilisation, termed as Mature Harappan (2600 BCE-1900 BCE) is the most prosperous phase.'
Which of the following modern-day regions did NOT yield distinctive Harappan artefacts according to the text?
Hint: Review the list of geographical areas mentioned where Harappan artefacts were discovered.
Answer
Nepal is not listed as a region where Harappan artefacts have been found.
Explanation
The text lists Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Sind, Punjab (Pakistan), Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra (India) as regions where Harappan artefacts have been found. Nepal is not mentioned.
What does the abbreviation 'BCE' stand for in the context of dating systems?
Hint: Refer to the section explaining common abbreviations for dates.
Answer
BCE stands for Before Common Era.
Explanation
The text explicitly states: 'BCE stands for Before Common Era'.
Specialists who study ancient plant remains to reconstruct dietary practices are known as:
Hint: The term relates to the study of ancient flora.
Answer
Archaeo-botanists are specialists in ancient plant remains.
Explanation
The text states, 'These are studied by archaeo-botanists, who are specialists in ancient plant remains.'
Which of the following grains was found relatively rarely at Harappan sites?
Hint: Check the list of grains and their prevalence.
Answer
Finds of rice were relatively rare.
Explanation
The text mentions, 'Grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame. Millets are found from sites in Gujarat. Finds of rice are relatively rare.'
What evidence suggests that oxen were used for ploughing in the Harappan Civilisation?
Hint: Look for indirect evidence mentioned regarding agricultural practices.
Answer
Representations of bulls on seals and terracotta sculpture suggest the use of oxen for ploughing.
Explanation
The text states, 'Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing.'
At which Harappan site was evidence of a ploughed field with two sets of furrows at right angles found, suggesting two different crops were grown together?
Hint: Recall the specific site mentioned for early agricultural field evidence.
Answer
Evidence of a ploughed field was found at Kalibangan.
Explanation
The text states, 'Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan), associated with Early Harappan levels... The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together.'
Traces of canals for irrigation have been found at which Harappan site in Afghanistan?
Hint: Consider the site located in a distant region mentioned for irrigation infrastructure.
Answer
Traces of canals were found at Shortughai.
Explanation
The text mentions, 'Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan...'
According to Ernest Mackay's report, what were 'saddle querns' primarily used for in Harappan settlements?
Hint: Refer to the 'How artefacts are identified' section and Mackay's description of querns.
Answer
Saddle querns were used for grinding cereals, and for pounding herbs and spices.
Explanation
Mackay's excerpt states, 'Saddle querns… seem to have been the only means in use for grinding cereals... Querns of the former type were probably used solely for grain; the second type possibly only for pounding herbs and spices for making curries.'
Which of the following is NOT a feature of the settlement planning in Mohenjodaro?
Hint: Review the description of Mohenjodaro as a planned urban centre.
Answer
Buildings in Mohenjodaro were constructed on platforms, not without them.
Explanation
The text mentions, 'The Citadel owes its height to the fact that buildings were constructed on mud brick platforms.' and 'Several buildings were built on platforms, which served as foundations.' This contradicts option B.
What was a distinctive feature of Harappan cities regarding their street layout and drainage?
Hint: Think about the priority of infrastructure development in Harappan cities.
Answer
Streets with drains were laid out first, and then houses were built along them.
Explanation
The text states, 'It seems that streets with drains were laid out first and then houses built along them.'
The apparent concern for privacy in Harappan domestic architecture is indicated by:
Hint: Consider features that would prevent outsiders from seeing directly into a home.
Answer
The absence of ground-level windows and indirect main entrances suggests a concern for privacy.
Explanation
The text notes, 'What is also interesting is an apparent concern for privacy: there are no windows in the walls along the ground level. Besides, the main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.'
What was the Great Bath, found in the Citadel of Mohenjodaro, likely used for?
Hint: Consider its unique structure and location within the Citadel.
Answer
Scholars suggest the Great Bath was meant for some kind of special ritual bath.
Explanation
The text mentions, 'The uniqueness of the structure, as well as the context in which it was found (the Citadel, with several distinctive buildings), has led scholars to suggest that it was meant for some kind of a special ritual bath.'
What do archaeologists NOT find commonly buried with the dead in Harappan sites, indicating a difference from Egyptian practices?
Hint: Compare Harappan burial practices with those of contemporaneous civilisations like Egypt.
Answer
Harappans did not generally bury enormous quantities of wealth with the dead, unlike the Egyptians.
Explanation
The text states, 'But on the whole, it appears that the Harappans did not believe in burying precious things with the dead,' contrasting this with the 'enormous quantities of wealth' buried in Egyptian pyramids.
Why might miniature pots of faience be considered luxury items in Harappan society?
Hint: Recall the criteria archaeologists use to classify objects as 'luxuries'.
Answer
Faience was a difficult material to work with, making these rare objects concentrated in larger, wealthier settlements.
Explanation
The text explains, 'Archaeologists assume objects were luxuries if they are rare or made from costly, non-local materials or with complicated technologies. Thus, little pots of faience... were probably considered precious because they were difficult to make.' It also notes they were 'generally concentrated in large settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa'.
Which Harappan site is described as a 'tiny settlement... almost exclusively devoted to craft production'?
Hint: Look for the specific name of the settlement known for its craft specialization.
Answer
Chanhudaro is highlighted as a specialized craft production center.
Explanation
The text states, 'Locate Chanhudaro on Map 1. This is a tiny settlement (less than 7 hectares) as compared to Mohenjodaro (125 hectares), almost exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making.'
What is considered one of the best indicators for identifying a center of craft production by archaeologists?
Hint: Think about what byproducts are left behind when crafts are made.
Answer
Waste material is a strong indicator of craft production.
Explanation
The text notes, 'In order to identify centres of craft production, archaeologists usually look for the following: raw material... tools; unfinished objects; rejects and waste material. In fact, waste is one of the best indicators of craft work.'
Where did the Harappans likely procure lapis lazuli, a highly valued blue stone?
Hint: Recall the distant settlement established for a specific valued material.
Answer
Shortughai in Afghanistan was near the best source of lapis lazuli.
Explanation
The text states, 'Other such sites were Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan, near the best source of lapis lazuli, a blue stone that was apparently very highly valued...'
What evidence suggests that copper was traded between the Harappans and Oman?
Hint: Look for scientific evidence mentioned for long-distance trade.
Answer
Chemical analyses showing nickel traces in copper from both Oman and Harappan artefacts suggest a common origin.
Explanation
The text states, 'Chemical analyses have shown that both the Omani copper and Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel, suggesting a common origin.'
Mesopotamian texts referred to the Harappan region by what name?
Hint: Recall the specific name used in ancient Mesopotamian records for a trading partner.
Answer
Meluhha was possibly the Harappan region according to Mesopotamian texts.
Explanation
The text states, 'Mesopotamian texts mention contact with regions named Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region.'
What was the primary purpose of seals and sealings in the Harappan Civilisation?
Hint: Think about how ancient merchants would ensure the integrity of their shipments.
Answer
Seals and sealings were used to secure goods and convey the sender's identity in long-distance communication.
Explanation
The text explains, 'Seals and sealings were used to facilitate long-distance communication. Imagine a bag of goods being sent from one place to another. Its mouth was tied with rope and on the knot was affixed some wet clay on which one or more seals were pressed, leaving an impression. If the bag reached with its sealing intact, it meant that it had not been tampered with. The sealing also conveyed the identity of the sender.'
What is a key characteristic of the Harappan script that has prevented its decipherment?
Hint: Consider the number of unique symbols in the script.
Answer
The large number of signs (375-400) suggests the Harappan script is not alphabetical, contributing to its undeciphered status.
Explanation
The text states, 'Although the script remains undeciphered to date, it was evidently not alphabetical (where each sign stands for a vowel or a consonant) as it has just too many signs – somewhere between 375 and 400.' It also notes it was 'written from right to left'.
What material were Harappan weights typically made of, and what was their general shape?
Hint: Recall the description of the standardized weights.
Answer
Harappan weights were usually made of chert and were generally cubical.
Explanation
The text states, 'Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone called chert and generally cubical (Fig. 1.2), with no markings.'
The extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts, such as pottery, seals, weights, and bricks, suggests what about their society?
Hint: Think about what kind of governance would lead to such widespread standardization.
Answer
The uniformity suggests complex decisions and a highly organized system, possibly a single state.
Explanation
The text states, 'There are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in Harappan society. Take for instance, the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts... bricks, though obviously not produced in any single centre, were of a uniform ratio throughout the region... Others argue that there was a single state, given the similarity in artefacts, the evidence for planned settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size...'
Why was a stone statue found at Mohenjodaro labeled as the 'priest-king' by archaeologists?
Hint: Consider the external influence on early archaeological interpretations.
Answer
The label 'priest-king' was applied due to familiar parallels with Mesopotamian figures, not direct evidence from the Harappan context.
Explanation
The text explains, 'A stone statue was labelled and continues to be known as the “priest-king”. This is because archaeologists were familiar with Mesopotamian history and its “priest-kings” and have found parallels in the Indus region.'
Around what time did most Mature Harappan sites in regions like Cholistan begin to be abandoned?
Hint: Look for the approximate date associated with the beginning of the decline.
Answer
Abandonment of Mature Harappan sites started around c. 1800 BCE.
Explanation
The text states, 'There is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE most of the Mature Harappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had been abandoned.'
Which of the following is NOT listed as a possible explanation for the decline of the Harappan Civilisation?
Hint: Review the various environmental and societal factors proposed for the civilization's collapse.
Answer
Volcanic eruptions are not mentioned as a cause for the decline.
Explanation
The text lists 'climatic change, deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers, to overuse of the landscape' as explanations. Volcanic eruptions are not included.
The shift from a standardized weight system to local weights and the disappearance of seals and script in the Late Harappan phase indicate what?
Hint: Consider what role standardization, seals, and script played in the Mature Harappan period.
Answer
These changes suggest the collapse of a central unifying authority and organized systems.
Explanation
The text states, 'It appears that a strong unifying element, perhaps the Harappan state, came to an end. This is evidenced by the disappearance of seals, the script, distinctive beads and pottery, the shift from a standardised weight system to the use of local weights; and the decline and abandonment of cities.'
Who is often called the 'father of Indian archaeology' and was the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)?
Hint: Recall the early figures in Indian archaeology mentioned.
Answer
Alexander Cunningham is known as the father of Indian archaeology.
Explanation
The text refers to 'Alexander Cunningham, the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), often called the father of Indian archaeology'.
Why did Cunningham initially miss the significance of Harappan artefacts?
Hint: Think about Cunningham's preconceptions and research interests.
Answer
Cunningham's focus on the Early Historic period and belief in a later start to Indian history caused him to overlook the Harappan artefacts' antiquity.
Explanation
The text states, 'Given his specific focus, it is not surprising that he missed the significance of Harappa... This was because he, like many others, thought that Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley (see Chapter 2).'
Who announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world in 1924?
Hint: Recall the Director-General of the ASI who made the pivotal announcement.
Answer
John Marshall, as Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery.
Explanation
The text states, 'Based on these finds, in 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.'
What was a significant flaw in John Marshall's excavation methods?
Hint: Consider how different layers of soil and artefacts relate to time.
Answer
Marshall's method of excavating in uniform horizontal units, ignoring the natural layers (stratigraphy), led to a loss of valuable contextual information.
Explanation
The text notes, 'Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly throughout the mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. This meant that all the artefacts recovered from the same unit were grouped together, even if they were found at different stratigraphic layers. As a result, valuable information about the context of these finds was irretrievably lost.'
Who rectified the flaw in excavation methods by recognizing the necessity to follow the stratigraphy of the mound?
Hint: Think about the Director-General who introduced more scientific rigor to excavations.
Answer
R.E.M. Wheeler corrected the excavation methodology by emphasizing stratigraphy.
Explanation
The text states, 'It was R.E.M. Wheeler, after he took over as Director-General of the ASI in 1944, who rectified this problem. Wheeler recognised that it was necessary to follow the stratigraphy of the mound rather than dig mechanically along uniform horizontal lines.'
What is 'Archaeogenetics'?
Hint: Recall the definition provided in the text's marginalia.
Answer
Archaeogenetics involves studying ancient DNA to understand population history.
Explanation
The text defines 'Archaeogenetics' as 'the study of DNA of ancient population. It involves various methods of molecular genetics to understand population history.'
Recent archaeogenetic research at Rakhigarhi suggests that the Harappans were:
Hint: Focus on the findings of the DNA analysis from Rakhigarhi.
Answer
The research indicates Harappans were indigenous people with deep genetic roots in the region.
Explanation
The text states, 'The analysis of the data indicates that the Harappans are the indigenous people of this region. The genetic roots of the Harappans go back to 10,000 BCE.'
The re-examination of skeletal remains at Mohenjodaro by George Dales challenged Wheeler's 'massacre' theory by suggesting:
Hint: Consider how new evidence can reverse earlier interpretations in archaeology.
Answer
Dales argued the skeletons were not from the same period and lacked evidence of a large-scale massacre or destruction.
Explanation
The text states, 'In the 1960s, the evidence of a massacre in Mohenjodaro was questioned by an archaeologist named George Dales. He demonstrated that the skeletons found at the site did not belong to the same period: Whereas a couple of them definitely seem to indicate a slaughter, … the bulk of the bones were found in contexts suggesting burials of the sloppiest and most irreverent nature. There is no destruction level covering the latest period of the city, no sign of extensive burning, no bodies of warriors clad in armour and surrounded by the weapons of war. The citadel, the only fortified part of the city, yielded no evidence of a final defence.'
When archaeologists classify finds, what two main principles do they use?
Hint: Think about the fundamental characteristics used to categorize discovered objects.
Answer
Archaeologists classify finds based on their material and their presumed function.
Explanation
The text explains, 'One simple principle of classification is in terms of material, such as stone, clay, metal, bone, ivory, etc. The second, and more complicated, is in terms of function: archaeologists have to decide whether, for instance, an artefact is a tool or an ornament, or both, or something meant for ritual use.'
Archaeologists interpret terracotta figurines of women with elaborate head-dresses as possibly representing:
Hint: Consider how early archaeologists often interpreted unusual or unfamiliar objects with religious significance.
Answer
These figurines are often interpreted as representations of mother goddesses.
Explanation
The text states, 'These included terracotta figurines of women, heavily jewelled, some with elaborate head-dresses. These were regarded as mother goddesses.'
A figure shown seated cross-legged in a 'yogic' posture, sometimes surrounded by animals on seals, has been regarded as a depiction of:
Hint: Think about possible early religious iconography and its modern connections.
Answer
This figure is interpreted as 'proto-Shiva,' an early form of a major Hindu deity.
Explanation
The text mentions, 'In some seals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in a “yogic” posture, sometimes surrounded by animals, has been regarded as a depiction of “proto-Shiva”, that is, an early form of one of the major deities of Hinduism.'
What was the standardized ratio for the length and breadth of Harappan bricks, relative to their height?
Hint: Recall the specific dimensions mentioned for brick standardization.
Answer
The bricks had a standardized ratio where length was four times and breadth was twice the height.
Explanation
The text states, 'Other signs of planning include bricks, which, whether sun-dried or baked, were of a standardised ratio, where the length and breadth were four times and twice the height respectively.'
What type of animal bones found at Harappan sites indicate domestication?
Hint: Distinguish between wild and domesticated animals listed in the subsistence section.
Answer
Bones of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig indicate domesticated animals.
Explanation
The text mentions, 'Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig. Studies done by archaeo-zoologists or zoo-archaeologists indicate that these animals were domesticated.' Bones of boar, deer, and gharial are listed as 'wild species'.
Which two coastal settlements were specialized centers for making shell objects?
Hint: Recall the settlements specifically mentioned for shell craft and their location.
Answer
Nageshwar and Balakot were specialized in shell object production.
Explanation
The text states, 'If you locate Nageshwar and Balakot on Map 1, you will notice that both settlements are near the coast. These were specialised centres for making shell objects – including bangles, ladles and inlay – which were taken to other settlements.'
What did terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest about Harappan transportation?
Hint: Consider the practical use of such models in understanding daily life.
Answer
The models suggest bullock carts were a key mode of land transport.
Explanation
The text mentions, 'Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that this was one important means of transporting goods and people across land routes.'
What does 'c.' stand for when used with dates in the text?
Hint: Refer to the abbreviations section for dates.
Answer
'c.' stands for circa, meaning 'approximate'.
Explanation
The text states, 'c. stands for the Latin word circa and means “approximate.”'
What is a 'mound' in archaeological terms?
Hint: Think about how archaeological sites are formed over long periods of human activity.
Answer
A mound is an accumulation of occupational debris resulting from continuous human settlement.
Explanation
The text defines 'mound' as: 'When people continue to live in the same place, their constant use and reuse of the landscape results in the build up of occupational debris, called a mound.'
Why is 'stratigraphy' crucial for archaeologists?
Hint: Consider how the layering of earth and objects over time provides historical context.
Answer
Stratigraphy helps sequence cultural periods by studying the layers of a site.
Explanation
The text explains, 'Generally, the lowest layers are the oldest and the highest are the most recent. The study of these layers is called stratigraphy. Artefacts found in layers can be assigned to specific cultural periods and can thus provide the cultural sequence for a site.'
Which of the following is NOT listed as one of the five major Harappan cities identified in the Indian subcontinent?
Hint: Review the list of five major cities explicitly identified in the text.
Answer
Lothal is categorized as a regional center/port, not one of the five major cities.
Explanation
The text states, 'Among these, five major cities have been identified. These are Rakhigarhi, Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Dholavira and Ganweriwala.' Lothal is mentioned elsewhere as a port and specialized center, but not as one of these five major cities.
What did the presence of water reservoirs in Dholavira (Gujarat) suggest about Harappan agricultural practices?
Hint: Consider the climate of most Harappan sites and the purpose of large water structures.
Answer
The reservoirs indicate water storage for agriculture, especially in semi-arid regions.
Explanation
The text mentions, 'Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required for agriculture... water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store water for agriculture.'
To reconstruct information about Harappan clothing, archaeologists primarily rely on:
Hint: Think about which types of materials typically survive in archaeological records in tropical regions.
Answer
Due to the decomposition of organic materials, indirect evidence like sculpture is used for clothing.
Explanation
The text notes, 'Organic materials such as cloth, leather, wood and reeds generally decompose, especially in tropical regions... For instance, though there are traces of cotton at some Harappan sites, to find out about clothing we have to depend on indirect evidence including depictions in sculpture.'
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